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Edited by
Moslem Savari
School of Agriculture, Khuzestan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Resources, Iran
Reviewed by
Naser Valizadeh
Shiraz University, Iran
Amir Naeimi
Department of Agricultural Extension, Communication and Rural Development,
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zanjan, Iran
Table of contents

 * Abstract
 * 1 Introduction
 * 2 Research methodology
 * 3 Results
 * 4 Discussion
 * 5 Conclusions and policy implications
 * Data availability statement
 * Ethics statement
 * Author contributions
 * Funding
 * Acknowledgments
 * Conflict of interest
 * Publisher's note
 * References


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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 15 May 2024
Sec. Climate-Smart Food Systems
Volume 8 - 2024 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2024.1399663


CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING A CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE-BASED CURRICULUM IN
AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS: EVIDENCE FROM IRAN

Mehdi Jomegi1Mehrdad Niknami1*Mohammad Sadegh Sabouri1Masoud Bijani2
 * 1Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Garmsar Branch, Islamic
   Azad University, Garmsar, Iran
 * 2Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, College of Agriculture,
   Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

The research aimed to identify the challenges of developing and implementing a
climate-smart agriculture (CSA)-based curriculum in Iran’s agricultural
vocational schools. It was exploratory descriptive-analytical in nature and
applied in goal, in which data were collected with the library and deep
interview method. The research methodology was based on grounded theory. The
statistical population was composed of 16 researchers, authors, managers, and
experts of the Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for
Educational Research and Planning and the Research Center of Educational
Studies. The participants were selected by the homogenous purposive sampling
method. The interview with the target population continued until it reached
theoretical saturation. Data were analyzed using the content analysis method.
The data collected in the interviews were subjected to open, axial, and
selective coding, which resulted in deriving 119 concepts and 28 categories. The
results revealed a seven-dimension structure composed of the challenges related
to determining educational goals, trainees, trainers’ professional process,
teaching methods, curriculum content selection and organization, curriculum
implementation, and curriculum appraisal. The results can help the experts in
the Office of Textbook Compilation experts adopt smarter policies and solutions
to solve the challenges of developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum in
agricultural vocational schools in Iran.




1 INTRODUCTION

Sustainable development goals (SDGs) require global society to be committed to
eradicating poverty, ending hunger, and taking urgent action to cope with
climate change and its effects by 2030 (Tadesse and Ahmed, 2023). On the other
hand, agriculture is the most critical factor determining the achievement of
these goals (Fentie and Beyene, 2019). It is, however, one of the most
susceptible sectors to the effects of climate change due to its inherent risks
and uncertainties (Pacillo et al., 2022). These risks have mostly a climatic
component, and they are all influenced in some way by climate change in
severity, range, or frequency (Gebru et al., 2020). Climate change can pose
risks to farming and livelihood, so it is imperative to adopt measures to
alleviate the risks and grasp the opportunities (Partey et al., 2018). In this
regard, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has been presented as a new paradigm for
adapting agriculture to climate change (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2020). CSA is a
strategy to manage agriculture in the face of climate change, which can increase
farmers’ productivity, adaptability, and resilience against climate change
(Fentie and Beyene, 2019; Tavassoti et al., 2021). This approach tries to
minimize the losses caused by climate change (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2020).

When facing a climatic crisis, it is necessary to ask what role the youth and
teenagers’ education plays in improving adaptation to climate change (Kumar et
al., 2023). Since agriculture is a jumping stage of all advanced economies
toward sustainable development (Coulibaly et al., 2021), smart
climate-consistent planning in the agricultural education sector is crucial, and
national economic and food security will incur irreparable losses if ignored.
Therefore, it is suitable to provide adolescents and youth with education to
initiate implementing environmental protection programs (Agus and Ali, 2022). In
this respect, agricultural vocational schools are vital in fostering creative,
determined, and innovative human resources for coping with and adapting to
climate change (Jomegi and Lashgarara, 2013).

A priority for CSA development in Iran is to develop a CSA-based curriculum for
the textbooks of the agricultural education system, especially agricultural
vocational schools (Belay et al., 2022). Textbooks are designed to convey
knowledge and certain ideas to students and to transfer what is perceived as
important by older generations (Gokmenoglu et al., 2023). According to scholars,
curricula are the heart of any educational system, so the efficiency of any
educational system depends on the efficiency of curricula (Simanjuntak et al.,
2022). Curricula focus on students’ perception of society and their beliefs
regarding their importance to teachers (Morote et al., 2020). They bring order
to classes and help students be more organized when engaging in school
activities (Campbell-Phillips, 2020).

Curriculum management plays an essential role in the development of the content
taught by the teacher and learned by the students, so curriculum can be a
catalyst for change (Wahyudi et al., 2020). Evidence shows that the educational
system has considered CSA inadequately, and there are some barriers. Karmi et
al. (2019) argue that in the context of climate change, public efforts in all
disciplines are required to cope with and adapt to this phenomenon. On the other
hand, most activities in this regard have concentrated on hardware and
technology with much less attention to the software and learning to protect the
Earth. Berhanu et al. (2024) revealed that educational programs and farm visits
positively influenced CSA-adopting smallholders’ resilience. Jomegi et al.
(2023) argue that there is a positive relationship between climate-smart
practices and such factors as farmers’ knowledge and skill. Chauhan et al.
(2022) found that CSA must be included in curricula as an integrated approach to
achieving agriculture sustainability. Chetti et al. (2022) explain that the
Indian government has launched various programs for the sustainable development
of agriculture, one of which is to promote skills among agriculture graduates
through ICT and the introduction of CSA at schools. Ahmed et al. (2022) report
that since agriculture is mostly rain-fed in Nigeria, a CSA-based curriculum
must be developed for the youth who will guide agricultural activities in the
near future. Handayani (2021) argues that the understanding of climate change
dynamism is critical for supporting farmers’ adaptation to future conditions.
Nonetheless, students and graduates do not understand the concept and
application of climate change in light of the dynamism of food production and
future food security, whereas agriculture is faced with the challenge of climate
change adaptation. According to Koirala and Bhandari (2020), the adoption and
use of CSA technologies can be accelerated by establishing a link among animal
farmers, researchers, and agricultural extension and education experts. Also, it
should be ensured that CSA activities are implemented with a decentralized
perspective on curricula.

The problems of educational systems, especially agricultural vocational schools,
originate from the lack of information available to planners on optimal
standards for agriculture education. Also, the insufficiencies and bottlenecks
of agricultural vocational schools in training skillful human resources are
rooted in how they offer practical and skill courses. A review of the history of
this education in Iran shows the weaknesses in the scientific and practical
bodies of education in agricultural vocational schools, especially in curriculum
and inattention to CSA. This issue can be solved if agricultural vocational
schools pursue a modern orientation in curricula (Pormoid and Yazdakhasi, 2021).
To solve this problem, agricultural vocational schools must follow a new
orientation in their curricula. The central theme of this research is the
educational requirements of agricultural vocational schools across Iran in terms
of the curriculum and attention to planning for CSA so educational planners can
reinforce agricultural training in this field (Waaswa et al., 2021). Also,
research in Iran shows that no proper research has addressed climate change
education in the educational system so far (Taghibaygi and Khosravipour, 2020),
and there are problems in the scientific and practical body of education in
agricultural vocational schools. On the other hand, the development of CSA-based
curricula has yet to be investigated in Iran. Hence, the education of climate
change and the development of a curriculum for CSA as a branch of environmental
education has been neglected and overlooked in Iran, although it has been a
challenge in recent years. Thus, the research gap in this domain is quite
evident. Therefore, this is the first study in Iran that deals with the
challenges of implementing a CSA-based curriculum in agricultural vocational
schools, and it is expected to speed up the adoption of CSA first by trainers
and trainees and then by farmers (Waaswa et al., 2021). In this concern,
revising and updating curricula and solving their challenges as per the issue of
climate change, diverse developments and innovations in the context of
information sharing, economic developments, knowledge-based economy, more
attention to experts, and social developments can help curricula to orient with
meeting the needs of society.

Seemingly, CSA-based curricula are implemented in Iran’s agricultural vocational
schools more slowly than in other parts of the world. However, research in this
respect has been limited, and this limited research has still focused on the
results of the programs in the short run, whereas vast developments have
happened at the school level in various parts of the world (Moradi and Didehban,
2017). Accordingly, having an up-to-date curriculum with a systematic and
climate change-consistent approach is inevitable for the educational system at
agricultural vocational schools. The application of the paradigm proposed in
this research can be effective in implementing CSA-based curricula at
agricultural vocational schools.

Considering the problems and challenges of designing and implementing curricula
in agricultural vocational schools, this institution obviously needs its
challenges and obstacles identified and solved more than ever. In this regard,
the present research aimed to analyze the challenges of formulating and
implementing a CSA-based curriculum in agricultural vocational schools. Since
the theoretical basis is poor in this regard, but the issue is of crucial
significance, we tried to explore the issues, problems, and bottlenecks of
developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum in Iran’s agricultural
vocational schools scientifically and closely in order to propose key solutions
and strategies, thereby leaping toward designing such curriculum for these
schools in Iran.


2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research was an applied study in goal and an explorative study in research
approach, and a quantitative study in research type, which used grounded theory
as its method. Data were collected by interview. The document method was used to
develop the theoretical framework, and a field survey was adopted to detect the
challenges of developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum for Iran’s
agricultural vocational schools. Data were collected by both the library and
field methods. So, after the literature on curricula and CSA including the
textbooks of 10th, 11th, and 12th grades, such as basic technical knowledge of
horticulture, basic technical knowledge of animal farming, basic technical
knowledge of crop farming, basic technical knowledge of agricultural machinery,
the application of modern technologies, technical and professional knowledge of
cropping, and crop cultivation was reviewed, the main challenges and deterrents
were derived and used to compile the initial questionnaire. Thus, the research
tried to answer the question with a qualitative approach. The research was based
on the systematic grounded theory methodology. The sampling was non-random. The
data analyst decided to select the next sample during theory formation as long
as the theory was finalized. In grounded theory, the sample size is not known in
advance, and sampling continues during data analysis until the theory reaches
theoretical saturation (Corbin and Strauss, 2012). The statistical population
comprised researchers, authors, managers, and experts at the Office of Textbook
Compilation of the Organization for Educational Research and Planning and at the
Research Center of Educational Studies. The sample was taken using the snowball
technique purposively, and sampling continued until theoretical saturation for
which 16 experts were selected.

The statistical population was selected according to Jomegi et al. (2023)
procedure. According to them, the theory in a qualitative study is valid if the
researcher has reached the saturation point. To achieve this point, the field
study must continue until no new evidence is obtained from the data. In other
words, the data has wholly been revised. The theoretical saturation point
reflects the validity of the grounded theory method because the theoretical
saturation point deals with data replication. This replication and its results
in methodology show the reliability of the research method. It was tried to
ensure data validity by integrating data collection methods (personal interview
and observation), combining data sources (researchers, authors, managers, and
experts of the Office of Textbook Compilation), and maximizing sample diversity
(in terms of interviews with people at different levels including researchers,
authors, managers, and experts of the Office of Textbook Compilation). The
researchers did not involve their assumptions during data collection, analysis,
and interpretation as much as possible. To take care of data transferability,
the researchers who had participated in interviews and noted all questions and
answers revised the findings. The participants were asked about the challenges
of developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum in Iran’s agricultural
vocational schools, which are reported in detail in the Results section.
Validity in qualitative research comprises internal validity and external
validity. The interval validity (consistency of the research findings with
reality) was measured using the remarks and recommendations of the supervisors
and advisers, researchers, long-term observations, engagement of participants in
all research steps, and the formulation of research biases. The external
validity (applicability or generalizability of the research findings to other
situations) was also measured by an in-depth description of data collected
through the interviews. The coding reliability was determined by triangulation
through data consensus (using different sources from different groups at
different times), researchers consensus (revising the findings by using the
opinions of several researchers), and consensus of methods (using severing
methods, such as observation, interview, documents, and questionnaire). Data
were analyzed concurrently with data collection through three steps open coding,
axial coding, and selective coding, for which MAXQDA12 was used.


2.1 STEP 1: OPEN CODING

This step of the grounded theory method immediately follows the first interview.
After each interview, the researcher focuses on finding concepts, picking proper
labels for them, and combining similar concepts. The open coding steps are as
follows:

• Analysis and coding: In this step, the researcher should consider coding all
events. A lot of codes may be derived from an interview or a text. But, when
data are regularly revised, new codes are counted, and final codes are
specified.

• Open coding table: It is composed of two parts. One is the table of the
initial codes derived from the interviews, and the next is the table of
categories derived from the codes, as well as their conceptual codes.


2.2 STEP 2: AXIAL CODING

In the second step of coding, axial coding, the researcher selects a category as
the core category, explores it as the core phenomenon, and specifies the
relationships of other categories with it. These relationships can be of five
types (Corbin and Strauss, 2012):

• Causal conditions: These conditions contribute to the formation of the core
phenomenon or category formation. These conditions are a set of categories and
their characteristics that influence the main category.

• Strategies (actions and interactions): They express the behaviors, facts, and
purposeful interactions that influence intervening and governing conditions.

• Contextual factors: They refer to specific conditions that influence
strategies, and it is difficult to distinguish them from causal conditions.
These conditions are composed of concepts, categories, and contextual variables.
There is a set of active variables against causal conditions. Highly relevant
variables are sometimes categorized under causal conditions, while lowly
relevant ones are categorized under governing conditions.

• Intervening conditions: These are conditions that affect strategies. These
conditions are composed of a set of intervening variables. Intervening
conditions are the structural conditions that facilitate or limit the
intervention of other factors and have a causal and general nature.

• Consequences: Some categories reflect the consequences and results of adopting
the strategies. This coding method, which is called the axial coding paradigm,
was proposed by Corbin and Strauss (2012). It is called axial because coding is
around the axis of a single category.


2.3 STEP 3: SELECTIVE CODING

This step includes selecting a core category regularly and systematically,
validating the relations, and filling the gaps with categories that need
revisions and expansion. This step is composed of some sub-steps. The first
sub-step is to explain the main storyline. The second is to relate the
supplementary categories to the core category using a paradigm (as described in
the axial coding). The third is to relate the categories to one another at the
dimensional level. The fourth is to confirm their relationships in the light of
data. The last is to complete the categories that need revision or expansion
(Danai Fard and Eslami, 2021).


3 RESULTS

This research conducted deep interviews with 16 researchers, authors, managers,
and experts at the Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for
Educational Research and Planning and the Research Center of Educational
Studies. The research ethics requires that we maintain their anonymity.

The results of the demographic characteristics revealed that 15.4% of the
participants had career experience of <5 years, 30.8% had career experience of
6–10 years, and 53.8% had career experience of >10 years. It was also found that
69.2% were university teachers, and 30.8% were managers and experts at the
Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for Educational Research and
Planning and the Research Center of Educational Studies. Females constituted
39.8%, and males constituted 69.2% of the participants.

After collecting data from interviews and texts, they were subjected to analysis
and coding in three stages: open, axial, and selective coding. In open coding,
the compatibility between the homogeneity of the data and the categories derived
was checked with regard to the information collected from the interviews. Then,
in axial coding, the categories derived from open coding were recombined as a
paradigm model based on Corbin and Strauss’s approach, including causal
conditions, contextual conditions, intervening factors, strategies, and
consequences, in order to provide a more precise and rational picture of the
findings. Finally, selective coding was performed to reach the core category.
The output of selective coding is the paradigm model and the basic theory. Based
on the interviews, redundant and unrelated items were discarded, and the items
that were repeated the most in the interviews were extracted.


3.1 CAUSAL CONDITIONS UNDERPINNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CSA-ORIENTED CONTENT FOR
THE CURRICULUM OF AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

Motivational conditions, or the so-called “causal factors,” are the conditions
and events that contribute to the realization and formation of a CSA-based
curriculum with their occurrence. In fact, motivational conditions and factors
answer the question as to the reasons and causes of curriculum development. The
causal conditions that influence the realization and formation of a CSA-based
curriculum and were derived by the researcher from the interviews are
centralized curriculum development, poor facilities and equipment for curriculum
implementation, lack of educational needs analysis, and passive teaching methods
(Table 1).


Table 1

Table 1. The concepts and categories identified the causal conditions that
influence CSA-oriented content development for the curriculum of agricultural
vocational schools.





3.2 CONTEXTUAL CONDITIONS UNDERPINNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CSA-ORIENTED CONTENT
FOR THE CURRICULUM OF AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

In general, contextual conditions represent specific attributes that typically
influence general strategies. In other words, they are the place of the events
related to the core phenomenon. These conditions in the present research include
non-interactive educational content, weakness in skill-oriented educational
content, weakness in content updating, traditional teaching, weakness in
promoting analytical skills, weakness in trainees’ effective learning, and
learning inefficiency (Table 2).


Table 2

Table 2. The concepts and categories identified about the contextual conditions
that influence CSA-oriented content development for the curriculum of
agricultural vocational schools.





3.3 INTERVENING CONDITIONS UNDERPINNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CSA-ORIENTED CONTENT
FOR THE CURRICULUM OF AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

Contingent factors called “intervening conditions” are general and broader
conditions, e.g., time, place, and culture, that influence the main strategies.
The nature of these elements is such that response to them depends on the
success and situation. These factors are the most influential on macro
strategies. Owing to their nature, they change over time. The intervening
conditions derived in this research include improper teaching, lack of teaching
diversity, lack of exploratory teaching, weakness in strengthening
problem-solving skills, poor visual content, poor textual content, and poor
fitness of evaluation methods with educational goals (Table 3).


Table 3

Table 3. The concepts and categories identified about the intervening conditions
that influence CSA-oriented content development for the curriculum of
agricultural vocational schools.





3.4 STRATEGIES UNDERPINNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CSA-ORIENTED CONTENT FOR THE
CURRICULUM OF AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

“Strategy,” as strategic and systemic factors, refers to how a core phenomenon
is controlled and dealt with in certain conditions. In fact, this part of the
research is related to presenting practical strategies with theoretical
approaches, which, if the causal, contextual, and intervening conditions are
considered adequately, can greatly contribute to developing and implementing a
curriculum in the long run. This approach influences all the functions and
actions of the Education Organization and pursues efficiency and effectiveness
by applying all the skills and aligning the environmental conditions. The
strategy in this research is to pay attention to performance goals, executive
(behavioral) goals, and approach goals in education (Table 4).


Table 4

Table 4. The concepts and categories identified about the strategies that
influence CSA-oriented content development for the curriculum of agricultural
vocational schools.





3.5 CONSEQUENCES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CSA-ORIENTED CONTENT FOR THE CURRICULUM
OF AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

Other results are the “consequences” of the core phenomenon. These consequences
are indeed actions and reactions that occur to deal with or manage and control
the core phenomenon. The consequences in this research included promoting
trainers’ professional skills, improving personal abilities, using new methods
in teaching, and evaluating trainees’ ability to use CSA (Table 5).


Table 5

Table 5. The concepts and categories identified about the consequences of
CSA-oriented content development for the curriculum of agricultural vocational
schools.




Finally, the paradigm of the challenges of developing and implementing a
CSA-based curriculum for agricultural vocational schools in Iran was extracted
based on Corbin and Strauss’ approach. It is displayed in Figure 1.


Figure 1

Figure 1. The conceptual model of the research.





4 DISCUSSION

Considering climate change and climatic crises worldwide (Romanello et al.,
2022), the primary strategy to deal with climate change implications is to
spread and apply CSA practices (Alliagbor et al., 2021). In this regard,
planning in accordance with CSA is crucial in the education sector, whose
ignorance will impose irreparable damage to Iran’s economy and people’s food
security. So, appropriate education must be provided to start implementing
environmental protection programs (Agus and Ali, 2022). Since trainees’
activities in technical and vocational schools and agricultural vocational
schools require diverse climate change-compatible training (Derbile et al.,
2022) and the type of programs in formal education has not been considered
adequately, the present research focused on exploring and analyzing the
challenges of developing and implementing CSA-based curriculum in Iran’s
agricultural vocational schools. To help scholars to identify the challenges,
the results have also been compared with relevant research. The results of
coding the interviews and analyzing the findings in the qualitative phase prove
it. The paradigm derived in the research specifies not only the conditions
underpinning the implementation of a CSA-based curriculum, which includes
causal, intervening, and contextual conditions, but also strategies and
consequences. The results are as follows:

With a focus on the challenges of developing and implementing a CSA-based
curriculum (the core phenomenon), the interviewees described its nature and
reasons. Also, the philosophy and premise mentioned by the respondents in this
description and in expressing their opinions and experiences mainly pointed to
the key components and categories influencing curriculum implementation, which
is an important phenomenon that can be a response to curriculum development.
This research identified the challenges of implementing a CSA-based curriculum
as the core phenomenon. It should be noted that agricultural education systems
can prepare students to deal with fluctuations and uncertainties caused by
climate change, propose solutions for coping with the growing risks of this
phenomenon, and mitigate the adverse consequences of climate change. This
support is essential, especially in Iran’s conditions. On the other hand, the
challenges of curriculum, especially the CSA-based curriculum, in responding to
climate change can aggravate environmental and social losses. Thus, the
educational system should be alerted to respond to climate change challenges.
Obviously, curriculum researchers and experts, as the most important capital of
the educational system, play a fundamental role in achieving this mission.
Previous studies (Handayani, 2021; Kombat et al., 2021; Ahmed et al., 2022) have
reported results similar to our findings.

To respond to climate change effectively, an educational system must consider
diverse processes and activities. The question is whether the educational system
of agricultural vocational schools can respond to trainees’ needs and adapt them
to climate change. It is currently difficult to achieve this goal. The trainees’
lack of access to proper technologies that are compatible with climate change is
the biggest barrier to their ability to provide services efficiently. This
problem can be solved by reinforcing the links between research centers and
educational centers. The need for conducting research on climate by both
research and academic centers is self-evident. Based on our results, educational
decentralization is the most appropriate solution from the perspective of causal
conditions to develop and implement a CSA-based curriculum. This has been
emphasized by other researchers, too (Salter and Maxwell, 2016; Stevenson et
al., 2017; Karsantik and Tan Şişman, 2021).

Non-interactive educational content, weakness in skill-oriented educational
content, weakness in content updating, traditional teaching, weakness in
promoting analytical skills, weakness in trainees’ effective learning, and
learning inefficiency influence the development and implementation of a
CSA-based curriculum as contextual conditions. It can be understood that
trainees in agricultural vocational schools are educated with a traditional
method, and most of them lack such skills as group making, systemic thinking,
knowledge management, networking, conflict settlement, and negotiation. In the
meantime, most managerial decisions regarding climate change must be adopted
collectively, so agricultural trainers should be capable of forming groups of
trainees and triggering group discussions for opinion sharing. Educating the
content by explaining it to students can be useful. Learning by education can be
effective when students have well understood the educational content. This
finding is supported by previous studies (Mahapatra and Satapathy, 2016; Lachner
et al., 2022; Mohammed et al., 2023).

Improper teaching, lack of teaching diversity, lack of exploratory teaching,
weakness in strengthening problem-solving skills, poor visual content, poor
textual content, and poor fitness of evaluation methods with educational goals
adversely impact the development and implementation of a CSA-based curriculum in
agricultural vocational schools. These factors are especially involved in
realizing and forming a CSA-based curriculum. Trainees’ lack of knowledge and
awareness about climate change in agricultural vocational schools and their
unawareness of how to manage climate change risks are challenges of the
agricultural education system. Therefore, educational institutions, including
agricultural vocational schools, must detect multiple educational methods and
use their capacities and potential to raise awareness of climate change and
solutions to mitigate it swiftly and precisely. The institutions in charge
should also provide schools, especially agricultural vocational schools, with
software (human resources) and hardware facilities (equipment and physical
sources). This agrees with previous studies (Salter and Maxwell, 2016;
Raghuvanshi and Ansari, 2017; Dhal, 2021; Esringü and Toy, 2022).

Developing and implementing a curriculum needs attention to performance goals,
executive (behavioral) goals, and approach goals. By adopting these strategies,
one can hope to increase attention to CSA in the curriculum of agricultural
vocational schools. The educational system should identify students’ knowledge
and skill needs by using various techniques, e.g., information gap analysis, and
thereby present continuous and directed educational programs. Since fast
response to climate change plays an essential role in effective risk management,
curricula should introduce technologies that are compatible with local
conditions in each region. In this regard, not only should curricula consider
the dissemination of new climate change management techniques, but efforts
should also be made to transfer simple techniques and technologies that can
contribute to reinforcing farmers’ resilience against climate change. Our
findings corroborate the results of some studies (Neve and Collett, 2018;
Esringü and Toy, 2022; Lachner et al., 2022).

Consequences result from strategies and actions taken to cope with and mitigate
the challenges of developing and implementing a curriculum. The distinctive
roles of agricultural trainers include managerial role (checking the status,
needs analysis, organizing, coordinating, executing, monitoring, and
evaluating), executive and educational role (training, consultation,
researching, and publishing innovations), guiding role (leadership and
intervention), social role (making trust and drawing the cooperation of
trainees), motivating role, empowering role (knowledge and skill), and technical
role (providing technical consultations and training). In general, agricultural
trainers need various skills, including knowledge and information,
personal-professional, social-psychological, and research skills, to play these
roles desirably. Previous researchers (Cleary et al., 2017; Heikkilä et al.,
2017; Barnes et al., 2018; Neve and Collett, 2018) have reported similar
results.


5 CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

Climate change is an unavoidable reality of the current and future centuries.
Although efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions can slow it down, we will
inevitably face some of these changes. In this regard, the educational system of
agricultural vocational schools should consider suitable mechanisms to increase
adaptation to climate change, which requires developing and implementing a
CSA-based curriculum. Given the current challenges in the curriculum of
agricultural vocational school, the educational system should change its
orientation to select the best curriculum for coping with climate change and
variability. Trainers play an undeniable role in increasing the response of
educational systems to climate change challenges. Therefore, the educational
system of agricultural vocational schools should not only recruit efficient
trainers who are specialized in CSA but also make appropriate investments in
improving a curriculum based on modern technologies. In addition, they must
consider improving the organization of trainers and human resources development
and pay special attention to empowering trainees in agricultural vocational
schools, so managers and trainers can work with more authority and be more
effective in implementing the CSA-based curriculum.

As with other studies, this research has some limitations whose removal can pave
the way for further quantitative and qualitative studies. First, the statistical
population was composed of the researchers, authors, managers, and experts of
the Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for Educational Research
and Planning and the Research Center of Educational Studies. Although they
provided invaluable insight into curriculum implementation in agricultural
vocational schools, the results may be different for other statistical
populations. It is therefore recommended to conduct the research at other
educational levels and make a comparison between the results. The second
limitation is that only agricultural vocational schools in Iran were studied.
So, there is a chance to conduct a similar study on other countries’
agricultural, technical, and vocational schools and compare the results. The
third limitation is related to the novelty of the topic, which reduced the
literature available for developing a theoretical framework. Thus, researchers
are recommended to use the proposed conceptual paradigm as a basis to solve the
challenges of implementing a CSA-based curriculum in agricultural vocational
schools.


DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following
licenses/restrictions: the original contributions presented in the study are
included in the article/supplementary material; further inquiries can be
directed to the corresponding author. Requests to access these datasets should
be directed to mehrdad.niknami@iau.ac.ir.


ETHICS STATEMENT

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants
in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written
informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal
guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance
with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.


AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

MJ: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation,
Software, Writing – original draft. MN: Formal analysis, Investigation,
Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing –
review & editing. MS: Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing. MB:
Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation,
Visualization, Writing – review & editing.


FUNDING

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors feel it necessary to express their gratitude to all those who helped
in different stages of this research.


CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential
conflict of interest.


PUBLISHER'S NOTE

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not
necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the
publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in
this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed
or endorsed by the publisher.


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Keywords: agricultural vocational schools, agriculture training, climate change,
climate-smart agriculture, curriculum

Citation: Jomegi M, Niknami M, Sabouri MS and Bijani M (2024) Challenges of
implementing a climate-smart agriculture-based curriculum in agricultural
vocational schools: evidence from Iran. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 8:1399663.
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2024.1399663

Received: 12 March 2024; Accepted: 01 May 2024;
Published: 15 May 2024.

Edited by:

Moslem Savari, Khuzestan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Resources, Iran

Reviewed by:

Naser Valizadeh, Shiraz University, Iran
Amir Naeimi, University of Zanjan, Iran

Copyright © 2024 Jomegi, Niknami, Sabouri and Bijani. This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted,
provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that
the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does
not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Mehrdad Niknami, Mehrdad.niknami@iau.ac.ir



Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or
those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be
evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not
guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.




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