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CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 · Planta Med
DOI: 10.1055/a-2219-9801
Reviews
ZINGIBER ZERUMBET: A SCOPING REVIEW OF ITS MEDICINAL PROPERTIES
Janice Sue Wen Chan
Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National
Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam, Shah Alam,
Selangor, Malaysia
,
Xin Yi Lim
Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National
Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam, Shah Alam,
Selangor, Malaysia
,
Norfarahana Japri
Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National
Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam, Shah Alam,
Selangor, Malaysia
,
Ida Farah Ahmad
Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National
Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam, Shah Alam,
Selangor, Malaysia
,
Terence Yew Chin Tan
Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National
Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam, Shah Alam,
Selangor, Malaysia
› Institutsangaben
› Weitere Informationen
* Abstract
* Volltext
* Referenzen
* Abbildungen
* Zusatzmaterial
als PDF herunterladen Lizenzen und Reprints
* Abstract
* Introduction
* Results
* Study Inclusion
* Characteristics of included studies
* Risk of Bias Assessment
* Efficacy
* Analgesia
* Anti-inflammatory
* Anti-diabetic
* Anti-hyperlipidaemia
* Anti-neoplastic
* Immunomodulatory
* Antioxidant
* Antipyretic
* Weight gain
* Hepatoprotective effects
* Nephroprotective effects
* Gastroprotective effects
* Locomotor-reducing activity
* Safety
* Discussion
* Methodology
* Research Questions
* Search Strategy
* Article Inclusion and Data Extraction
* Data analysis
* Full-Text Analysis
* Risk of Bias Assessment
* Contributorsʼ Statement
* References
ABSTRACT
Zingiber zerumbet, a plant native to tropical and subtropical Asia, has a vast
range of traditional uses and has been continuously studied for its medicinal
properties. However, a systematic methodological approach in evidence synthesis
on the plantʼs efficacy is lacking, and there is a need to elicit the current
research status of this plant. This scoping review was conducted to
systematically explore and collate the available scientific evidence on the
efficacy of Z. zerumbet and its main phytoconstituents in various formulations,
their biological mechanisms, and their safety. Results included 54 articles
consisting of animal studies, while there were no published human studies. Only
half of the included studies provided adequate reporting on the quality-related
details of Z. zerumbet formulations. Identified pharmacological activities were
analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemic,
anti-neoplastic, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antipyretic, hepatoprotective,
nephroprotective, gastroprotective, and locomotor-reducing activities. Notably,
the ethanolic extract of Z. zerumbet was found to be well tolerated for up to 28
days. In conclusion, Z. zerumbet and zerumbone have various pharmacological
effects, especially in analgesic and anti-inflammatory models. However, there is
still a pressing need for comprehensive safety data to conduct clinical trials.
#
KEY WORDS
Zingiberaceae - zerumbone - lempoyang - ginger - herbal medicine - phytomedicine
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
5-HT: 5-hydroxytryptamine
ACO: acyl-CoA oxidase
ACOX1: peroxisomal acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1
AEZZ: aqueous extract of Z. zerumbet
AgNORs: silver-stained nucleolar organiser regions protein
AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase
ATP: adenosine triphosphate
Bax: B-cell lymphoma protein 2- associated X
Bcl-2 protein: B-cell lymphoma protein 2
bFGF: basic fibroblast growth factor
C/EBPα : cytosine-cytosine-adenosine-adenosine- thymidine enhancer-binding
protein alpha
CB-1: cannabinoid receptor 1
cGMP: cyclic guanosine monophosphate
COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2
CPT-1: carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1
EEZZ: ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet
ELEZZ: diethyl ether layer extract of Z. zerumbet
EOZZ: essential oil of Z. zerumbet
ERK1/2: extracellular signal-regulated kinase ½
ETBF: enterotoxigenic B. fragilis
FGFR1: fibroblast growth factor receptor 1
FOXO1: forkhead box protein O1
GLUT4: glucose transporter type 4
HL-60: human promyelocytic leukaemia cell
Hmox1: heme oxygenase 1 gene
HO-1: heme oxygenase-1
HSP27: heat shock protein 27
i.p: intraperitoneal
ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule-1
IL-10: interleukin 10
IL-1β : interleukin 1 beta
IL-6: interleukin-6
iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase
IκB: I kappa B
LOAEL: lowest-observed-adverse-effect level
LPS: lipopolysaccharide
MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
MIP-2: macrophage inflammatory protein 2
miR-146b: microRNA-146b
MMP: matrix metalloproteinase
NFκB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells
NO: nitric oxide
NOAEL: no-observed-adverse-effect level
Nrf2: nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2
p.o: per oral
p38 MAPK: p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase
P388D1 : murine lymphoid neoplasm cell line
PEPCK-C: cytosolic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
PGC1-α : peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha
PGD2 : Prostaglandin D2
PGE2 : prostaglandin E2
PKCδ : protein kinase C delta
PPARα : peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha
s.c: subcutaneous
SIRT1: sirtuin (silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog) 1
SREBP-1c: sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1
TGF-β1: transforming growth factor beta 1
TNF-α : tumour necrosis factor alpha
TRPV1: transient receptor potential vanilloid 1
VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor
VEGFR2: vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2
w/w: weight for weight
INTRODUCTION
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. is a species in the Zingiberaceae family
and is commonly known as lempoyang in Malay and, among others, bitter ginger [1]
and shampoo ginger in English [2]. It is native to tropical and subtropical Asia
[3] and has spread throughout the Pacific [4] due to cultivation for ornamental
and medicinal purposes, as well as naturalisation [5]. The rhizomes of Z.
zerumbet are especially known for their medicinal properties. Z. zerumbet has a
wide range of traditional uses, including treatments for typhoid, stomach
ailments, allergies, poisoning, appetite enhancement, constipation,
haemorrhoids, asthma, skin diseases, and postnatal care [6], [7].
Over the past decade, numerous narrative reviews have discussed various aspects
of Z. zerumbet, including its botanical qualities, phytochemistry,
pharmacognosy, pharmacological activities, and biological qualities, with the
most recent comprehensive review dating back to 2017 [8], [9], [10], [11]. A
mini-review of Z. zerumbet in 2023 reported on its potential osteoinduction
properties [12]. However, a consistent limitation among these works is the lack
of a systematic methodological approach in evidence synthesis, with a majority
focusing on in vitro studies. In view of the rising interest in the health
benefits of Z. zerumbet, this scoping review aims to systematically explore,
consolidate, and provide an overview of both animal and human studies concerning
Z. zerumbet and its major phytoconstituents related to its pharmacological
efficacy, the potential biological mechanisms involved, and their safety
profile. With this information, the potential areas of its therapeutic use that
remain unexplored will be uncovered.
#
RESULTS
STUDY INCLUSION
A total of 54 articles were selected from an initial pool of 2920 records. All
included studies were preclinical in vivo studies, as no published clinical
studies were identified. The study selection process is presented in the
preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) [13]
flowchart, as shown in [Fig. 1].
Fig. 1 PRISMA flowchart.
#
CHARACTERISTICS OF INCLUDED STUDIES
Overall, the studies examined the efficacy and safety of Z. zerumbet in the form
of extracts and its primary phytoconstituent, zerumbone. These extracts and
zerumbone were sourced from the rhizomes of the Z. zerumbet plant. Out of the
included studies, 26 underwent an authentication process through the deposition
of a voucher specimen of the plant. A total of 33 studies reported a qualitative
analysis to identify the phytochemicals associated with Z. zerumbet, while 25
studies carried out a quantitative analysis to ascertain the composition of
these phytochemicals in Z. zerumbet. Only one study utilised a standardised
formulation of the ethanolic extract of Z. zerumbet (EEZZ). The interventions
were administered via topical, oral, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal,
intraduodenally, and inhalation routes. The checklist for the qualitative,
quantitative, and standardisation of the herbal interventions for all included
studies can be found in Supplementary material: Table 1S.
#
RISK OF BIAS ASSESSMENT
The risk of bias (ROB) assessment for the studies is presented in [Fig. 2] (ROB
graph) and [Fig. 3] (ROB summary). Over 75% of the studies exhibited a low ROB
in baseline characteristics and selective reporting. However, half of the
studies showed an unclear ROB with regards to sequence generation, allocation
concealment, random housing, blinding of trial caregivers and researchers,
random outcome assessment, and blinding of outcome assessors. This suggests that
many animal studies related to Z. zerumbet show concerns regarding selection,
performance, and detection bias. Nearly 25% of the studies displayed a high ROB
for incomplete outcome data (attrition bias).
Fig. 2 Risk-of-bias assessment graph. Fig. 3 Risk-of-bias summary.
#
EFFICACY
All 54 included studies were preclinical in vivo studies, with 38 further
supported by additional in vitro findings that explored potential mechanisms of
action. The main pharmacological activities identified from the studies
encompassed analgesia, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemic,
anti-neoplastic, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antipyretic, hepatoprotective,
nephroprotective, gastroprotective, and reduced locomotor activities. The
scientific evidence detailing the pharmacological properties of Z. zerumbet and
its phytoconstituent is presented in the tables and in the subsequent narrative.
Only data with a statistically significant p-value of less than 0.05 were
included, while results with insignificant findings were omitted.
ANALGESIA
The analgesic effects of Z. zerumbet methanol extract, Z. zerumbet essential
oil, and zerumbone were reported via intraperitoneal, oral, and subcutaneous
routes. Detailed findings on the analgesic effects of Z. zerumbet and zerumbone
are presented in [Table 1].
Table 1 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can contribute to
analgesic and antinociceptive effects.
Table 1 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can contribute to
analgesic and antinociceptive effects.
Animal
Intervention
Disease model
Administration details
Mechanism
Ref.
Abbreviations: i.p: intraperitoneal; s.c: subcutaneous; p.o: per oral; NO:
nitric oxide; PGE2: prostaglandin E2; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; 5-HT:
5-hydroxytryptamine; CB: cannabinoid; IL-1β: interleukin-1 beta; IL-6:
interleukin-6; TNF-α: tumour necrosis factor alpha; cGMP: cyclic guanosine
monophosphate; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; TRPV1: transient receptor potenzial
vanilloid 1
1A. Acute
Rat
Zerumbone
Osteoarthritis
10 – 50 mg/kg single dose, i.p
Suppress NO, PGE2, and MMP production
Chien, 2016 [45]
1 – 5 mg/kg/day, p.o, 7 days
Mice
80% methanol extract of Z. zerumbet
Inflammation and nociception
25 – 100 mg/kg, single dose, s.c
Inhibit opioid receptors, bradykinin, prostaglandin, and histamine-mediated
actions
Zakaria, 2010 [46]
1B. Neuropathic pain
Mice
Zerumbone
Chronic constriction injury-induced
10 mg/kg single dose, i.p
Stimulate serotonergic inhibitory pathway (5-HT receptor subtypes 1A, 1B, 2A, 3,
6, and 7)
Chia, 2016 [47]
Mice
Zerumbone
Chronic constriction injury-induced
10 mg/kg single dose, i.p
Agonist of potassium channels (voltage-dependent K+, ATP-sensitive K+ and
Ca2+-K+ channels) Agonist of the non-selective opioid receptors and selective
opioid receptors (µ-opioid receptors, δ-opioid and κ-opioid)
Gopalsamy, 2020 [36]
Mice
Zerumbone
Neuropathic pain
5 – 50 mg/kg, once daily, 14 days, p.o
Agonist of CB-1 receptor
Chia, 2021 [48]
Mice
Zerumbone
Neuropathic pain
5 – 50 mg/kg, once daily, 14 days, p.o
Inhibit production of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in blood plasma and spinal cord
tissues
Gopalsamy, 2017 [37]
Mice
Zerumbone
Neuropathic pain
5 – 100 mg/kg, once daily, 7 days, i.p
Inhibit mechanical allodynia, thermal allodynia, and hyperalgesia. The mechanism
of action was not reported
Zulazmi, 2015 [49]
1C. Mixed (General anti-nociception)
Mice
Z. zerumbet essential oil
General anti-nociception
50 – 300 mg/kg, single dose i.p and p.o
Activate L arginine/NO/cGMP/ATP-sensitive K+ channel pathway
Inhibit glutamatergic system and TRPV1 receptors
Activate opioidergic system by acting as an agonist to the non-selective opioid
receptors
Inhibit the inflammatory mediators, prostaglandin, histamine, serotonin, and
bradykinin
Khalid, 2011 [50]
Sulaiman, 2010b [30]
Mice
Zerumbone
General anti-nociception
10 – 100 mg/kg, single dose, i.p
Agonist of the non-selective opioid receptors
Sulaiman, 2009 [38]
#
ANTI-INFLAMMATORY
The anti-inflammatory properties of Z. zerumbet were reported in the form of
essential oil via the intraperitoneal route and zerumbone through topical,
intraperitoneal, and oral administration. Detailed findings on the
anti-inflammatory properties of Z. zerumbet and zerumbone are presented in
[Table 2].
Table 2 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can contribute to
anti-inflammation.
Table 2 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can contribute to
anti-inflammation.
Animal
Intervention
Disease model
Administration details
Mechanism
Ref.
Abbreviations. w/w: weight for weight; COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2; EOZZ: essential
oil of Z. zerumbet; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; TGF-β1:
transforming growth factor beta 1; IL-10: interleukin 10; iNOS: inducible nitric
oxide synthase; NFκB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B
cells; IκB: I kappa B; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion
molecule-1; IL-1β: interleukin 1 beta; MIP-2: macrophage inflammatory protein 2;
ETBF: enterotoxigenic B. fragilis; NR: not reported
2A. Acute
Rat
Zerumbone
Excisional wound (for wound-healing effects)
0.5 mg/mL, once daily, 15 days, topical
Downregulate IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2 gene, while increasing IL-10 expression in
wound tissues
Fadhel, 2020 [51]
Mice
Zerumbone
Excisional wound (for wound-healing effects)
0.01 or 1% (w/w), once daily, 15 days, topical
Increase VEGF, TGF-β1, and collagen IV expressions which correlates with
increase fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis
Liu, 2017 [52]
Mice
Zerumbone
Acute lung injury
0 – 10 mmol/kg, single dose, i.p
Inhibit expression of TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2
Reduce activation of NFκB
Ho, 2017 [53]
Mice
Zerumbone
Acute lung injury
0 – 2183.4 µg/kg, single dose, i.p
Reduce neutrophil infiltration by decreasing expression of ICAM-1
Prevent LPS-induced adhesion molecule expression by decreasing IL-1β and MIP-2
expressions
Inhibit NFκB activation through NFκB phosphorylation and IκB degradation
Lee, 2018 [54]
2B. Chronic
Mice
Zerumbone
Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis (ETBF) infection
30 – 60 mg/kg/day, 7 days, p.o
Inhibit NFκB signalling that decreases ETBF-induced colitis
Zerumbone shown to not inhibit E-cadherin cleavage
Hwang, 2019 [32]
2C. Mixed
Mice
Zerumbone
Ulcerative colitis
0.1%, ad libitum, 14 days, p.o
Reduce PGE2 formation in colonic mucus membrane
Reduce TNF-α formation
Murakami, 2003 [55]
Mice
Zerumbone
Acute and chronic inflammation
5 – 100 mg/kg, single dose, i.p
Inhibit fibroblasts activity and synthesis of collagen with mucopolysaccharide,
in granulation tissue formation
Sulaiman, 2010a [29]
Rat
EOZZ
General anti-inflammatory activity
Acute inflammation:
30 – 300 mg/kg, single dose, i.p
Chronic inflammation:
30 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 7 days, i.p
Reduce oedema, acute inflammation, chronic inflammation, and inflammatory- and
noninflammatory-mediated pain. Mechanism of action was not reported
Zakaria, 2011 [56]
#
ANTI-DIABETIC
Ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet and zerumbone was reported to have anti-diabetic
properties. Detailed findings of the anti-diabetic effects of Z. zerumbet and
zerumbone are presented in [Table 3].
Table 3 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can affect
diabetic-related diseases.
Table 3 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can affect
diabetic-related diseases.
Animal
Intervention
Disease model
Administration details
Mechanism
Ref.
Abbreviations: EEZZ: ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet; AEZZ: aqueous extract of Z.
zerumbet; AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; p38 MAPK: p38
mitogen-activated protein kinase; ERK1/2: extracellular signal-regulated kinase
½; MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; GLUT4: glucose transporter type 4;
PEPCK-C: cytosolic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
3A. Microvascular effects
Rat
EEZZ
Diabetic retinopathy
200 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 3 months, p.o
Stabilise tight junction proteins, leading to decreasing blood-retinal-barrier
permeability
Reduce p38 MAPK enzyme in the retina
Inhibit retinal NFκB activation Decrease retinal expression of TNF-α, IL-1β,
IL-6, Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1
Tzeng, 2015 [57]
Rat
EEZZ
Diabetic retinopathy
200 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 3 months, p.o
Prevent activation of ERK1/2 phosphorylation and NFκB, downregulating
pro-inflammatory mediators
Hong, 2016 [58]
Rat
Zerumbone
Diabetic retinopathy
40 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Inhibit NFκB activation and reduce VEGF expression in retinal tissue, thereby
inhibiting retinal inflammation
Tzeng, 2016 [59]
Rat
EEZZ
Diabetic nephropathy
200 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Inhibit AMPK dephosphorylation in the kidneys
Tzeng, 2013 [60]
Rat
Zerumbone
Diabetic nephropathy
20 – 40 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Reduce upregulation of protein expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in the
kidneys
Reduce renal MCP-1 and ICAM-1 protein expression
Reduce TGF-β1 protein expression
Inhibit macrophage infiltration through reducing levels of p38-mediated
inflammatory response in the kidneys
Tzeng, 2013 [61]
3B. Insulin resistance
Rat
EEZZ
Insulin resistance
100 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Agonist of GLUT4 translocation from intracellular vesicles to the plasma
membrane, thereby reversing the abnormal responsiveness to insulin seen in
diabetes
Inhibit hepatic PEPCK-C expression, thereby reduces the rate of gluconeogenesis
in the liver
Chang, 2012a [62]
3C. Anti-hyperglycemic
Rat
AEZZ
Hyperglycemia
50 – 150 mg/kg, 10 days, p.o
Reduce blood glucose and body weight. The mechanism of action was not reported
Husen, 2004 [63]
#
ANTI-HYPERLIPIDAEMIA
EEZZ and zerumbone administered orally showed anti-hyperlipidaemic properties.
Detailed findings on the anti-hyperlipidaemic properties of Z. zerumbet and
zerumbone are presented in [Table 4].
Table 4 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can affect
hyperlipidemia.
Table 4 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations can affect
hyperlipidemia.
Animal
Intervention
Disease model
Administration details
Mechanism
Ref.
Abbreviations: AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; C/EBPα:
cytosine-cytosine-adenosine-adenosine-thymidine enhancer-binding protein alpha;
EEZZ: ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet; FOXO1: forkhead box protein O1; PGC1-α:
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha; miR-146b:
microRNA-146b; SIRT1: sirtuin (silent mating type information regulation 2
homolog) 1; PPARα: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha; PPARγ:
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma; SREBP-1c: sterol regulatory
element-binding protein 1; ACOX1: peroxisomal acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1; CPT-1:
carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1; ACO: acyl-CoA oxidase
4A. Exogenous lipid metabolism
Mice
Zerumbone
Hyperlipidemia
0.01 – 0.025%, ad libitum, 8 weeks, p.o
Increase AMPK phosphorylation in white adipose tissue by inhibiting acetyl-CoA
carboxylase
Inhibit the transcription factors C/EBPα and PPARγ, as well as the fatty acid
synthase hence causing inhibition of adipogenesis differentiation caused by
lipid accumulation
Increase SIRT1 expression through inhibition of miR-146b expression and
increasing the NAD+/NADH ratio in white adipose tissue Inhibit deacetylation of
FOXO1 and PGC1-α in the differentiated adipocytes
Ahn, 2017 [64]
4B. Endogenous lipid metabolism
Rat
EEZZ
Hyperlipidemia
100 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Increase hepatic PPARα level which leads to increase hepatic fatty acid
oxidation and reduced triglyceride content
Chang, 2012c [65]
Hamster
EEZZ
Hyperlipidemia
100 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Decrease plasma concentration of MCP-1, TNFα-, and IL-6 Suppress macrophage
recruitment and inhibit release of inflammatory cytokines from hepatic
macrophages, prevents hepatic steatosis, fibrosis and insulin resistance
Inhibit SREBP-1c expression, thereby decreases transcription of target lipogenic
genes which then decrease enzyme activity leading to reduced rate of lipid
synthesis Increase hepatic PPARα mRNA and PPARα-mediated transcription of ACOX1,
CPT-1, and ACO mRNA in hepatic cells
Chang, 2014 [66]
Hamster
Zerumbone
Hyperlipidemia
75 – 300 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Inhibit hepatic mRNA levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c and
its lipogenic target genes (fatty acid synthase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, and
stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1)
Upregulate hepatic mRNA expression of PPARα and its target genes (carnitine
palmitoyl transferase-1, acyl-CoA oxidase, and acyl-CoA oxidase-1)
Tzeng, 2013 [67]
Hamster
Zerumbone
Hyperlipidemia
25 – 100 mg/kg, once daily, 8 weeks, p.o
Decrease hepatic mRNA levels of fatty acid synthase, malic enzyme,
sterol-regulatory element binding protein and 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA
reductase
Upregulate hepatic mRNA expression of PPARα and its target gene (CPT-1 and ACO)
Tzeng, 2014 [68]
#
ANTI-NEOPLASTIC
Z. zerumbet was shown to have anti-angiogenetic and anti-tumour properties.
Detailed findings on the anti-neoplastic properties of Z. zerumbet extracts and
zerumbone are presented in [Table 5].
Table 5 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations contribute to
anti-neoplastic effects.
Table 5 The mechanisms by which Z. zerumbet formulations contribute to
anti-neoplastic effects.
Animal
Intervention
Disease model
Administration details
Mechanism
Ref.
Abbreviations: VEGFR2: vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2; FGFR1:
fibroblast growth factor receptor 1; bFGF: basic fibroblast growth factor;
ELEZZ: diethyl ether layer extract of Z. zerumbet; MEZZR: Methanol extract of Z.
zerumbet rhizome; P388D1: murine lymphoid neoplasm cell line; HL-60: human
promyelocytic leukaemia cell; G2/M: Gap 2 phase mitosis; ppm: parts per million;
HO-1: heme oxygenase-1; ADC: Adenocarcinoma; AD: Adenoma; Hmox1: heme oxygenase
1 gene; Nrf2: nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2; HSP27: heat
shock protein 27; PKCδ: protein kinase C delta; Bax: B-cell lymphoma protein 2-
associated X; Bcl-2 protein: B-cell lymphoma protein 2; AgNORs: silver-stained
nucleolar organiser regions protein; PGE2: prostaglandin E2; PGD2: prostaglandin
D2
5A. Anti-angiogenesis
Mice
Zerumbone
Angiogenesis
10 – 200 µM, single dose, s.c
Inhibit proliferation, migration and blood capillary formation Inhibit
VEGF-induced VEGFR2 phosphorylation in primary endothelial cells Inhibit
phosphorylation of FGFR1 induced by bFGF stimulation
Park, 2015 [69]
5B. Antitumor effect
Mice
Zerumbone and ELEZZ
Lymphoma
Zerumbone: 0.5 – 2.0 mg/kg, once daily, 8 days, i.p (in vivo antitumor P388D1
assay)
ELEZZ:
1.25 – 10.0 mg/kg, once daily, 8 days, i.p (in vivo antitumor P388D1 assay)
Prolong survival days in lymphoma animal model (mechanism unclear)
Inhibit the G2/M transition of the HL-60 cells (in vitro)
Huang, 2005 [70]
Mice
MEZZR
Ehrlich ascites carcinoma
10 – 20 mg/kg/day, 5 days, i.p
Cancer cell apoptosis in the presence of caspase-3, -8, and -9 inhibitors
Hanif, 2022 [71]
Mice
Zerumbone
Colon and lung cancer
Colon carcinogenesis 100 – 500 ppm, ad libitum, 17 weeks, p.o
Lung carcinogenesis
100 – 500 ppm, ad libitum, 21 weeks, p.o
Reduce NFκB and HO-1 expression in tumours.
Suppress cell proliferation
Induce apoptosis
Kim, 2009 [33]
Mice
Zerumbone
Skin cancer
1 – 10 µmol, topical on dorsal skin, 24 hours
Increase HO-1 mRNA expression through transcriptional activation of Hmox1,
mediated through the activation of Nrf2 signalling.
Shin, 2011 [72]
Mice
Zerumbone
Non-small-cell lung cancer
Mice treated 5 times (route, dose and duration of zerumbone not stated)
Inhibit the binding activity between HSP27 and PKCδ or cytochrome C in tumour
tissue lysates, improving the effects of chemo- or radiation treatment
Choi, 2011 [73]
Rat
Zerumbone
Liver cancer
15 – 60 mg/kg, twice per week, 11 weeks, i.p
Induce apoptosis via increasing Bax gene while decreasing Bcl-2 protein
expression
Taha, 2010 [34]
Rat
Zerumbone
Colon cancer
0.01 – 0.05%, ad libitum, 5 weeks, p.o
Reduce expression of COX-2, PGE2 and PGD2 in colonic mucosa
Reduce cell proliferation activity (seen by decreased AgNORs number) in colonic
cryptal cell nuclei
Tanaka, 2001 [35]
#
IMMUNOMODULATORY
Three studies reported the immunomodulatory properties of Z. zerumbet and
zerumbone. In male BALB/c mice, zerumbone was observed to suppress macrophage
phagocytosis (part of the innate immune system) and inhibit nitrous oxide
production in a concentration-dependent manner at dosages ranging from 25 to
100 mg/kg when administered orally, once daily for 14 days) [14]. In female
BALB/c mice with ovalbumin (OVA)-induced T helper 2 (Th2)-mediated asthma,
zerumbone improved airway hyperresponsiveness and reduced airway inflammation.
This was noted at dosages of 0.1 to 10 mg/kg, administered orally three times
daily for 17 days) [15]. Studies on male Wistar rats revealed that an 80%
ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet has mild immunosuppressive effects by reducing
the phagocytic activity of neutrophils (another component of the innate immune
system). Additionally, the ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet influenced the
adaptive immune system by inhibiting neutrophil migration, CD11β/CD18 integrin
expression, and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a dose-dependent
manner, at dosages ranging from 100 to 400 mg/kg when given orally daily for 15
days [16].
#
ANTIOXIDANT
Three articles reported on the antioxidant properties of Z. zerumbet and
zerumbone. These antioxidative properties have been reported in animal models of
brain, lung, and skin damages. In male Wistar rats with induced brain damage,
the treatment of ethyl-acetate Z. zerumbet extract significantly reduced the
level of oxidative stress markers such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein
carbonyl in the brain homogenate. This treatment given at dosages of 200 to
400 mg/kg, once daily by oral gavage 30 minutes before ethanol exposure via
intraperitoneal route for 14 consecutive days, also enhanced the activities of
serum superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase
(GPx) activities, as well as glutathione (GSH) levels in a dose-dependent manner
[17]. In adult male pathogen-free Institute of Cancer Research mice with
lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI), zerumbone pretreatment
ameliorated histopathological lung changes, such as neutrophil infiltration,
increased alveolar wall thickness, haemorrhage, and hyaline membrane formation.
Zerumbone at dosages from 1 to 10 µmol/kg suppressed LPS-induced activation of
myeloperoxidase (MPO), metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and lipid peroxidation in
the lungs, reversed the LPS-induced reduction in antioxidative enzyme
(superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase) activities in a
concentration-dependent manner, and reduced LPS-induced oxidative stress through
the mechanism of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2) and heme
oxygenase (HO-1) [18]. In a separate study on athymic female nude mice
(BALB/c-nu) exploring skin damage from UVA radiation, topical zerumbone
pretreatment significantly countered the damage. Applied at 55 or 110 µg/day for
14 days, the treatment upregulated Nrf2- and Nrf2-dependent antioxidative genes,
particularly HO-1 and γ-glutamyl cysteine ligase (γ-GCLC). This protective
action functioned in a dose-dependent manner, further involving the
downregulation of the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio in keratinocytes and the prevention of DNA
fragmentation [19].
#
ANTIPYRETIC
One study involving albino rats reported on the antipyretic properties of the
EEZZ at doses of 1 to 4 g/kg and zerumbone at 0.75 g/kg of body weight,
administered orally. Both EEZZ and zerumbone were found to reduce the rectal
temperature in rats by about 1.3 °C within 2 hours. However, this reduction was
not as pronounced as that produced by paracetamol, which lowered the temperature
by 1.7 °C within 3 hours [20].
#
WEIGHT GAIN
In male Sprague-Dawley rats on a high-fat diet, the inhalation of Z. zerumbet
essential oil and zerumbone was observed to further increase body weight. While
the inhalation of zerumbone decreased brown adipose tissue (BAT) sympathetic
nerve activity, inhalation of Z. zerumbet essential oil did not have any effect
on the BAT activity. It has been suggested that this decrease in BAT sympathetic
nerve activity could lead to diminished thermogenesis. As a result, there might
be a decrease in the conversion of fatty acids, ultimately contributing to an
increase in body weight [21].
#
HEPATOPROTECTIVE EFFECTS
Two studies investigated the hepatoprotective properties of zerumbone in male
Sprague-Dawley rats and C57BL/6 mice. In both studies, zerumbone was found to
restore neutrophil levels, to reduce ALT and AST levels, and to maintain normal
hepatic tissue histology [22], [23]. At high doses of 50 mg/kg, zerumbone was
observed to downregulate the expression levels of IL‐1β and TNFα. It also
reduces the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling
(TUNEL)‐positive area in male C57BL/6 mice subjected to hepatotoxin‐mediated
acute and chronic liver injuries [23].
#
NEPHROPROTECTIVE EFFECTS
A study highlighted the nephroprotective effect of the ethyl acetate extract of
Z. zerumbet against paracetamol-induced nephrotoxicity and oxidative stress in
male Sprague-Dawley rats. When the Z. zerumbet extract was administered
intraperitoneally at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg for 7 days, there were marked
reductions in creatinine elevations and oxidative stress indicators.
Specifically, there were decreased levels of renal homogenate, plasma
malondialdehyde (MDA), plasma protein carbonyl, and renal advanced oxidation
protein product (AOPP). Additionally, the histological evaluation indicated
better protection of the kidneys, especially in the appearance of glomeruli and
tubules, when compared to the untreated group. This protection was observed to
be dose-dependent [24].
#
GASTROPROTECTIVE EFFECTS
One study reported on the gastroprotective property of zerumbone in an
ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model using male Sprague-Dawley rats. When
zerumbone was administered intraduodenally at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg, there was
a significant reduction in the acidity of gastric juice compared to the control
group subjected to pylorus ligature. This effect was comparable to that of
omeprazole at 30 mg/kg. Rats pretreated with zerumbone demonstrated a decrease
in ulcer area formation, an increase in mucus production, and a reduction in
both oedema and leukocyte infiltration. There was also a noticeable flattening
of the mucosal fold and preservation of the gastric mucosa layer. Additionally,
there was an overexpression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP-70) in the gastric
tissue, suggesting enhanced protection of the gastric mucosa, since HSP-70
combats stress-induced protein denaturation. Following zerumbone treatment,
there was a restoration in the levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), glutathione
(GSH), and lipid peroxidation in comparison to the ulcer control group [25].
#
LOCOMOTOR-REDUCING ACTIVITY
Two studies investigated the locomotor-reducing effects of the phytoconstituents
of Z. zerumbet rhizomes. Ogawa et al. reported a decrease in total spontaneous
locomotor activity in mice after a 60-minute inhalation of zerumbone and its
derivatives, with a concentration of 4.5 × 10−2 mg being the most significant
[26]. Another study by the same primary author focused on inhaled
hexahydrozerumbone derivatives and zerumbol. Hexahydrozerumbone significantly
reduced the total spontaneous locomotor activity in mice at a dose of
4.5 × 10−3 mg, whereas zerumbol did not show any significant effects [27]. The
mechanism behind this reduced locomotion was not determined in either of the
studies.
#
#
SAFETY
General toxicity studies for the ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet and zerumbone
were conducted in seven studies [14], [15], [16], [28], [29], [30], [31], with
results presented in [Table 6]. Overall, no deaths or severe abnormalities were
observed for most of the investigated doses. In addition to these toxicity
studies, four studies reported no adverse events from the use of Z. zerumbet
extracts and zerumbone during efficacy studies [32], [33], [34], [35], while
three other studies indicated that zerumbone did not exert sedative effects
[36], [37], [38]. The ethanolic extract of Z. zerumbet demonstrated no genotoxic
effects in mice based on their bone marrow studies [31]. A summary of the
preclinical in vivo safety studies done for Z. zerumbet and zerumbone can also
be found in [Table 6].
Table 6 Safety data of Z. zerumbet and zerumbone.
Table 6 Safety data of Z. zerumbet and zerumbone.
Animal
Intervention
Toxicity study type/Disease model
Administration details
Safety findings
Ref.
Abbreviations: EEZZ: ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet; NOAEL:
no-observed-adverse-effect level; LOAEL: lowest-observed-adverse-effect level;
EOZZ: essential oil of Z. zerumbet
Rat
EEZZ
General toxicity
Acute: 15 g/kg/day, in three times daily dose for one day, p.o
Subacute: 1000 – 3000 mg/kg, once daily for 28 days, p.o
NOAEL (acute): 15 g/kg LOAEL (subacute): 3000 mg/kg
No abnormalities in the body weight gain; food and water consumption;
haematological parameters (blood counts, i.e., liver, renal, lipid, and glucose
profile); and necropsy and histopathological examination.
Chang, 2012b [28]
Rat
EEZZ
General toxicity
100, 200, 400, and 2000 mg/kg, once daily for 14 days, p.o
Results reported for 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg:
No abnormalities in weight, clinical, and gross organ examination
Ghazalee, 2019 [16]
Mice
EEZZ
General and genotoxicity
500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg once daily for two days, p.o
No abnormalities in general appearance and body weight. No increased number of
micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes in the bone marrow indicating no
genotoxic hazards
Chang, 2012d [31]
Mice
EOZZ
General toxicity
300, 100, and 300 mg/kg, single dose, p.o
No deaths observed up to the dose of 5000 mg/kg. No behavioural and locomotor
changes.
Sulaiman, 2010b [30]
Mice
Zerumbone
General toxicity
25, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg once daily for 14 days, p.o
No abnormalities in body weight and vital organs; spleen and liver; ALT, ALP,
AST, and creatinine in all groups.
Loss of appetite; lowered body temperature; changes in general behavioural
activities; and colour of skin, hairs, teeth, and eyes in 200 mg/kg group
Jantan, 2019 [14]
Mice
Zerumbone
General toxicity
10 mg/kg, three times per day for 17 days, p.o
No deaths and no treatment-related organ abnormalities
Shieh, 2015 [15]
Mice
Zerumbone
General toxicity
10, 50, 100, and 1000 mg/kg, once daily for 7 days, i.p
No deaths and treatment-related organ abnormalities
Sulaiman, 2010a [29]
#
#
DISCUSSION
The bulk of the evidence focused on the analgesic, anti-inflammatory,
anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemia, and anti-neoplastic properties of Z.
zerumbet and zerumbone. A small number of studies reported their antioxidant,
antipyretic, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and gastroprotective
properties, as well as their locomotor-reducing activities. Among these
pharmacological effects, the most researched areas were analgesia and
anti-inflammation. In terms of formulations and dosages, three were commonly
utilised: the methanolic extract of Z. zerumbet at dosages of 25 – 100 mg/kg
administered via the intraperitoneal route; the essential oil of Z. zerumbet at
dosages of 30 – 300 mg/kg given orally or intraperitoneally; and zerumbone
derived from Z. zerumbet at dosages 5 – 100 mg/kg administered either orally or
intraperitoneally. Z. zerumbet may exert its various pharmacological effects
through the phytochemicals contained in the plant such as triterpenes, saponins,
tannins, and other volatile oils, particularly the zerumbone compound, which is
a sesquiterpenoid [11].
Based on the included studies, the ethanolic extract of Z. zerumbet appears safe
in short-term animal toxicity studies for up to 28 days, with no evident safety
concerns. The essential oil of Z. zerumbet, when administered intraperitoneally
in up to doses of 5000 mg/kg, showed neither mortality nor adverse effects.
Zerumbone, however, presented a more mixed picture. One study reported adverse
effects at a dose of 200 mg/kg, but other studies using even higher doses of up
to 1000 mg/kg did not confirm these findings. These adverse effects encompassed
appetite loss, lowered body temperature, behavioural changes, and discolouration
of skin, fur, teeth, and eyes. Among the pharmacological categories with five or
more animal studies (i.e., analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic,
anti-hyperlipidemic, and anti-neoplastic effects) zerumbone-based interventions
were more extensively examined. This preference might arise from the fact that
zerumbone, being a compound, offers a clearer path to discerning the mechanism
of its pharmacological action. In contrast, while Z. zerumbet extracts do show
therapeutic effects, their mechanisms of action can be challenging to pinpoint
due to the complex composition of natural products, which can contain a variety
of compounds that influence therapeutic pathways.
Documented traditional uses of Z. zerumbet that we have access to include its
use as an appetiser and as treatment for stomach aches [7], pain relief,
toothaches, alleviation of a cough related to cavities, asthma, deworming, and
various unspecified skin diseases [39]. Based on our findings, the most
substantiated traditional claim through scientific studies is Z. zerumbet’s
analgesic property. This can be linked, both directly and indirectly, to
toothaches, cough, asthma, and skin diseases – primarily through its
anti-inflammatory attributes. Modern research has identified claims for Z.
zerumbet that are not documented in its traditional uses. These claims include
anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-neoplastic, hepatoprotective, and
nephroprotective effects, as well as the reduction of locomotor activity.
We found that approximately half of the studies reported, in detail, the
qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analyses of the herbal interventions.
A significant gap in the herbal medicine literature on safety and efficacy is
the lack of comprehensive reporting on the quality details of the formulations
under investigation [40], [41]. Given that the phytoconstituents of medicinal
plants can vary based on agroclimatic conditions and processing methods [41], it
is vital to provide detailed reports on the quality-related components of a
formulation being studied. Despite the substantial amount of preclinical
evidence, we could not find any published clinical trial. The availability of
such data will facilitate a more insightful interpretation of the dose-response
relationship and enable extrapolation to similar formulations of the same plant,
further bridging the gap towards successful clinical studies. Currently, based
on the preclinical in vivo efficacy data, most of the research focuses on the
anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of Z. zerumbet, indicating a promising
direction for future clinical trials.
One limitation of this review is the inclusion of only articles written in
English. Due to the limited availability of human literature, a meaningful
appraisal could not be conducted. Our safety data are derived primarily from
animal toxicity studies and from the extraction of safety-related data within
efficacy studies, given the design of our search strategy. This approach might
not capture all safety-related data. Furthermore, our institution might not have
access to all traditional medicinal claims related to Z. zerumbet, especially
those from non-English sources or global traditional practices, potentially
leading to certain oversights.
In conclusion, the outcomes the studies demonstrate that Z. zerumbet holds
promise in the field of natural products with therapeutic claims, particularly
in addressing pain and anti-inflammatory conditions. The combined effects of
this plant could potentially offer comprehensive symptom relief for various
diseases. However, the future prospects of this review suggest the need for
further research. This includes standardising Z. zerumbet formulations,
extending the safety studies based on its duration of use, and investigating its
pharmacokinetic properties. A specialised review centred on the safety and
potential herb–drug interactions of Z. zerumbet would further enrich the field.
Furthermore, it is imperative to establish rigorous herbal quality standards to
enhance the interpretation of results and pave the way for successful clinical
trials in the future.
#
METHODOLOGY
We conducted a scoping review according to the York framework of scoping studies
by Arskey and OʼMalley [42]. This framework was appropriate for the broad range
of preclinical evidence comprising of the efficacy and safety of Z. zerumbet.
This scoping review has been registered with the National Medical Research
Register (NMRR) under the research ID 21 – 526 – 59 312 with an a priori
protocol prepared. To ensure the transparency and comprehensiveness of our
scoping review, we followed the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews
and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, which involved using the PRISMA flowchart
to document the screening and selection process, as well as the PRISMA scoping
review checklist (Supplementary material: Table 2S), to ensure relevant items
were included in the review [13].
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This scoping review was based on the research question “What is the current
scientific evidence on Z. zerumbet as a natural product?” and was further
subdivided to categorise the types of evidence, which include the following:
1. What is the pharmacological scientific evidence of Z. zerumbet?
2. What is the safety profile of Z. zerumbet in animal toxicity studies and its
potential harm to humans?
The population, intervention, comparison, and outcomes (PICO) framework shown in
[Table 7] was used to approach the research study questions.
Table 7 Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcomes (PICO) framework.
Elements
Details
Population
Human and animal model in efficacy and toxicity studies.
Intervention
Z. zerumbet as a single herb, with any plant parts used, in any type of
formulation.
Comparator
None, placebo, or standard medical treatment.
Outcome
* Pharmacological properties.
* Preclinical and clinical outcomes of efficacy studies.
* Mechanism of action of Z. zerumbet in efficacy studies.
* Toxicity results from animal toxicity studies.
#
SEARCH STRATEGY
A systematic search was conducted by two independent investigators on electronic
databases including MEDLINE, CENTRAL, LILACS, and Google Scholar from the period
since commencement to 31st March 2023. A predetermined combination of keywords
that include “Zingiber zerumbet” and its synonyms, “medicinal”, “therapeutic”,
“benefit”, “effect”, “properties”, and “bioactive” were used. An example of the
keyword search used in the databases is presented in the Supplementary material:
Table 3S-6S. The abstracts of the searched results were extracted with
duplicates removed using the bibliographical software EndNote 20.
#
ARTICLE INCLUSION AND DATA EXTRACTION
The search result was transferred to a Microsoft Excel sheet. Title, abstract,
and full-text article screening was performed by two independent investigators,
with disagreements resolved by a third investigator. This review accounted for
Z. zerumbet as a whole plant used in any formulation (crude, extract, and
essential oil) and its major compound studied, zerumbone. Only English-language
articles were included. The inclusion criteria comprised all published primary
literature of animal and clinical studies on the efficacy and safety of Z.
zerumbet, of animal studies that incorporate in vitro studies to elicit the
mechanism of action, of any plant part, and of any formulations with Z. zerumbet
as a sole active ingredient and its representative compound isolated from the
plant (i.e., zerumbone). The exclusion criteria comprised review papers, book
sections, combination products and formulation, and in silico and purely in
vitro studies. A data extraction table of included studies (the table layout
provided in Supplementary material: Table 7S) was created to record all the
relevant data upon full-text screening.
#
DATA ANALYSIS
FULL-TEXT ANALYSIS
Descriptive numerical analysis on the efficacy and safety of Z. zerumbet was
performed. For efficacy, we focused on data related to its intended
pharmacological effects, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms, and
the range of doses shown to be effective. In terms of safety, the primary data
was sourced from animal toxicity studies. This encompassed information about the
dose range tested, any resulting morbidity or mortality, and other pertinent
findings from clinical evaluations, histopathological examinations, and
laboratory tests.
#
RISK OF BIAS ASSESSMENT
The risk of bias for each included study was assessed independently by two
authors, TYCT and JSWC. For this assessment, we used the systematic review
Centre for Laboratory Animal Experimentation risk of bias tool (SYRCLEʼs RoB)
[43]. This tool has 10 domains:
1. Sequence generation;
2. Baseline characteristics;
3. Allocation concealment;
4. Random housing;
5. Blinding of trial caregivers;
6. Random outcome assessment;
7. Blinding of outcome assessors;
8. Incomplete outcome data;
9. Selective reporting;
10. Other biases.
For each criterion, the study was judged as having a ‘low’, ‘unclear’, or ‘high’
risk of bias. Justifications for each judgment were provided in a risk-of-bias
table. Additionally, we visualised the overall results using the review manager
application by Cochrane (RevMan 5.4.1) to generate the risk-of-bias graph and
summary [44].
#
#
#
CONTRIBUTORSʼ STATEMENT
All the authors were involved in the abstract and full-text screening of the
included studies, crosschecked among pairs, and tabulated data from the included
studies into the data extraction sheet. JSWC prepared the data extraction table
for full text analysis, analysed and interpreted the results of the included
studies, drafted the manuscript, designed the research framework, critically
revised the manuscript, and discussed the results. XYL analysed, critically
reviewed the interpreted data in the drafted manuscript, provided inputs on
tabulating the interpreted data and discussion and interpreted the safety aspect
section of the results. NJ and TYCT descriptively analysed and interpreted the
data on several pharmacological efficacy aspects in the results section. TYCT
provided input on the overall discussion. IFA contributed to the manuscript
literature review, introduction, and proofreading. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
#
#
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Director General of Health Malaysia,
Deputy Director General of Health Malaysia (Research and Technical Support),
Director of Institute for Medical Research, and Head of Herbal Medicine Research
Centre for their authorisation and permission for the publication of this
article. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to
disclose. No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this
manuscript.
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
The herbal intervention qualitative, quantitative, and standardisation
checklist, the PRISMA scoping review checklist, the keyword search strategy,
and the data extraction table layout are provided in the Supporting
Information.
* Ergänzendes Material
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CORRESPONDENCE
Dr. Janice Sue Wen Chan
Herbal Medicine Research Centre
Institute for Medical Research
National Institutes of Health
Ministry of Health Malaysia
Persiaran Setia Murni
40170 Setia Alam (Shah Alam, Selangor)
Malaysia
Telefon: + 6 03 33 62 81 23
Fax: + 6 03 33 62 80 01
eMail: janice.cs@moh.gov.my
PUBLIKATIONSVERLAUF
Eingereicht: 13. Juni 2023
Angenommen nach Revision: 01. November 2023
Accepted Manuscript online:
30. November 2023
Artikel online veröffentlicht:
20. Dezember 2023
© 2023. The Author(s). This is an open access article published by Thieme under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonDerivative-NonCommercial
License, permitting copying and reproduction so long as the original work is
given appropriate credit. Contents may not be used for commecial purposes, or
adapted, remixed, transformed or built upon.
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Lizenzen und Reprints
Fig. 1 PRISMA flowchart. Fig. 2 Risk-of-bias assessment graph.
Fig. 3 Risk-of-bias summary.
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festzustellen, welche Zielgruppen für eine Werbekampagne oder für bestimmte
Inhalte empfänglich sind).
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* ENTWICKLUNG UND VERBESSERUNG DER DIENSTLEISTUNGEN 506 LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN
DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
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Informationen über Ihre Aktivitäten auf diesem Dienst, wie z. B. Ihre
Interaktion mit Anzeigen oder Inhalten, können uns dabei helfen, Produkte und
Dienstleistungen zu verbessern und neue Produkte und Dienstleistungen
basierend auf Benutzerinteraktionen, der Art der Zielgruppe usw. zu
erstellen. Dieser Zweck umfasst an sich nicht die Entwicklung oder Ergänzung
von Benutzerprofilen und Kennungen.
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Den Berechtigten Interessen Widersprechen Widerspruch entfernen
* VERWENDUNG SPEZIELLER DATEN ZUR AUSWAHL VON INHALTEN 109 LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN
DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
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Inhalte, die Ihnen auf diesem Dienst präsentiert werden, können auf
speziellen Daten basieren, wie z. B. der Website oder App, die Sie verwenden,
Ihrem nicht genauen Standort, Ihrem Gerätetyp oder der Information, mit
welchen Inhalten Sie interagieren (oder interagiert haben) (z. B., um die
Häufigkeit der Videos oder Artikel zu begrenzen).
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GENAUE GEOLOCATION-DATEN VERWENDEN 250 LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
Genaue Geolocation-Daten verwenden
Mit Ihrer Zustimmung kann Ihr genauer Standort (mit einem Radius von weniger als
500 Metern) zur Unterstützung der in diesem Rahmenwerk erläuterten Zwecke
verwendet werden.
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GERÄTEEIGENSCHAFTEN ZUR IDENTIFIKATION AKTIV ABFRAGEN 119 LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN
DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
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angefordert und verwendet werden, um es von anderen Geräten zu unterscheiden
(wie z. B. die installierten Zeichensätze oder Plugins, die Auflösung Ihres
Bildschirms), um die in diesem Rahmenwerk erläuterten Zwecke zu unterstützen.
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GEWÄHRLEISTUNG DER SICHERHEIT, VERHINDERUNG UND AUFDECKUNG VON BETRUG UND
FEHLERBEHEBUNG 485 LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
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Ihre Daten können verwendet werden, um ungewöhnliche und potenziell
betrügerische Aktivitäten (zum Beispiel bezüglich Werbung, Ad-Klicks durch Bots)
zu überwachen und zu verhindern, und um sicherzustellen, dass Systeme und
Prozesse ordnungsgemäß und sicher funktionieren. Die Daten können auch verwendet
werden, um Probleme zu beheben, die Sie, der Websitebetreiber oder der
Werbetreibende bei der Bereitstellung von Inhalten und Anzeigen und bei Ihrer
Interaktion mit ihnen haben können.
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BEREITSTELLUNG UND PRÄSENTATION VON WERBUNG UND INHALTEN 477 LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN
DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
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Bestimmte Informationen (wie IP-Adresse oder Gerätefunktionen) werden verwendet,
um die technische Kompatibilität des Inhalts oder der Werbung zu gewährleisten
und die Übertragung des Inhalts oder der Werbung auf Ihr Gerät zu ermöglichen.
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ABGLEICHUNG UND KOMBINATION VON DATEN AUS UNTERSCHIEDLICHEN QUELLEN 327
LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
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Informationen über Ihre Aktivitäten auf diesem Dienst können zur Unterstützung
der in diesem Rahmenwerk erläuterten Zwecke mit anderen Informationen über Sie
aus unterschiedlichen Quellen (z. B. Ihren Aktivitäten auf einem anderen
Online-Dienst, Ihrer Nutzung einer Kundenkarte im Geschäft oder Ihren Antworten
auf eine Umfrage) abgeglichen und kombiniert werden.
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VERSCHIEDENE GERÄTE VERKNÜPFEN 313 LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
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Zur Unterstützung der in diesem Rahmenwerk erläuterten Zwecke kann ermittelt
werden, ob es wahrscheinlich ist, dass Ihr Gerät mit anderen Geräten verbunden
ist, die Ihnen oder Ihrem Haushalt angehören (z. B., weil Sie sowohl auf Ihrem
Handy als auch auf Ihrem Computer beim gleichen Dienst angemeldet sind oder weil
Sie auf beiden Geräten die gleiche Internetverbindung verwenden).
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IDENTIFIKATION VON GERÄTEN ANHAND AUTOMATISCH ÜBERMITTELTER INFORMATIONEN 453
LIEFERANTEN KÖNNEN DIESEN ZWECK NUTZEN
Immer aktiv
Ihr Gerät kann zur Unterstützung der in diesem Rahmenwerk erläuterten Zwecke
mithilfe von Informationen unterschieden werden, die es beim Zugriff auf das
Internet automatisch übermittelt (z. B. die IP-Adresse Ihrer Internetverbindung
oder die Art des Browsers, den Sie verwenden).
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