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Research Article|Articles in Press
Investigating nutritional strategies during a rest period to improve health,
growth, and behavioral outcomes of transported surplus dairy calves
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INVESTIGATING NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES DURING A REST PERIOD TO IMPROVE HEALTH,
GROWTH, AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES OF TRANSPORTED SURPLUS DAIRY CALVES
* A. Bajus
A. Bajus
Affiliations
University of Guelph, Department of Population Medicine, 50 Stone Rd E,
Guelph, ON, CA
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* K.C. Creutzinger
K.C. Creutzinger
Affiliations
University of Wisconsin-River Falls, Department of Animal and Food Science,
410 S 3rd St, River Falls, WI, USA
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* M.C. Cantor
M.C. Cantor
Affiliations
University of Guelph, Department of Population Medicine, 50 Stone Rd E,
Guelph, ON, CA
The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Animal Science, 106 AVBS
Bldg, College Park, PA, USA
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* J.N. Wilms
J.N. Wilms
Affiliations
Trouw Nutrition R&D, P.O. Box 299, 3800 AG, Amersfoort, the Netherlands
Department of Animal Biosciences, Animal Science and Nutrition, University of
Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 1W2
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* D.E. Gomez
D.E. Gomez
Affiliations
University of Guelph, Department of Population Medicine, 50 Stone Rd E,
Guelph, ON, CA
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* M.A. Steele
M.A. Steele
Affiliations
Department of Animal Biosciences, Animal Science and Nutrition, University of
Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 1W2
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* D.F. Kelton
D.F. Kelton
Affiliations
University of Guelph, Department of Population Medicine, 50 Stone Rd E,
Guelph, ON, CA
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* D.L. Renaud
D.L. Renaud
Correspondence
Corresponding Author: D.L. Renaud, Department of Population Medicine,
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1
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Guelph, ON, CA
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Open AccessPublished:February 02, 2024DOI:https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2023-23973
Investigating nutritional strategies during a rest period to improve health,
growth, and behavioral outcomes of transported surplus dairy calves
Previous ArticlePerceptions of biosecurity in a Canadian dairy context
Next ArticleEstimates of genetic parameters for rumination …
* ABSTRACT
* Key words
* INTRODUCTION
* MATERIALS AND METHODS
* RESULTS
* DISCUSSION
* CONCLUSION
* REFERENCES
* Article info
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ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of feeding surplus
dairy calves a milk replacer (MR) or one of 2 different oral rehydration
solutions (ORS) during a mid-transportation rest period on metabolic and
clinical health indicators, growth, and behavioral outcomes after arrival to a
calf-raising facility. Surplus dairy calves (n = 128) were transported in 4
cohorts from February to July 2022 for 12 h to a holding facility, rested for 8
h, then transported for an additional 6 h to a calf-raising facility. Upon
arrival to the holding facility, calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 3
treatments: MR (n = 43), a high sodium ORS developed for diarrhea (ORS-D; n =
43), or a high potassium ORS developed for transportation (ORS-T; n = 42). The
exact age of calves at transportation was unknown, however all calves were under
14 d of age. Calf body weight at enrollment was 43.9 ± 5.9 kg, 43.7 ± 6.5 kg,
and 45.0 ± 4.5 kg for calves fed MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T, respectively. Calves were
fed 2.0 L of their treatment twice, once upon arrival and once before leaving
the holding facility. At unloading and reloading at the holding facility, calves
were weighed and blood sampled. Calves were also health scored at unloading at
the holding facility. After arrival at the calf-raising facility, calves were
weighed, health scored, and blood sampled. Blood samples were collected at 24
and 48 h and body weight (BW) was recorded at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, 5 d, 7 d, 14 d,
and at 8 wks after arrival to the calf-raising facility. Calves were also health
scored daily for 14 d, which included fecal consistency scoring and evaluating
the presence or absence of respiratory disease. Lying time, lying bouts, and
activity index were measured during transportation and from 3 d relative to
transportation using accelerometers. At arrival to the calf-raiser, calves fed
ORS-D had higher concentrations of NEFA and BHB than calves fed MR. Furthermore,
calves fed ORS-T had higher concentrations of BHB at arrival to the calf raiser
compared with calves fed MR. In the 14 d after arrival to the calf-raiser, there
was evidence that calves fed ORS-T had a higher proportion of days with diarrhea
and respiratory disease compared with those fed MR. During transportation,
calves fed ORS-T had a lower activity index than calves fed MR, suggesting that
ORS-T calves had lower overall activity. Additionally, on the day of
transportation (d 0), ORS-T and ORS-D calves had a lower activity index than
calves fed MR. There were no treatment effects on growth outcomes. The results
of this study suggest that feeding MR rather than an ORS during a
mid-transportation rest period could minimize fat mobilization and can
potentially improve diarrhea and respiratory disease but does not affect growth
outcomes after arrival to calf-raisers.
KEY WORDS
* calf
* transportation
* electrolytes
* behavior
Interpretive Summary In this study, we investigated the effects of feeding
surplus dairy calves milk replacer (MR) or two different oral rehydration
solutions (ORS) during a mid-transportation rest period on metabolic and
clinical health indicators, growth, and behavioral outcomes after arrival to a
calf-raising facility. Compared to either ORS treatment, we found that calves
fed MR had less fat mobilization, greater activity, and evidence for improved
health. There was no association of treatment with growth outcomes. Based on
these results, we concluded that feeding MR before transportation, or during a
mid-transportation rest period, may be a better option for transported calves.
INTRODUCTION
Surplus dairy calves are commonly transported long distances from the dairy farm
of origin to livestock auctions, veal farms, and calf-raisers at a young age (
Wilson et al., 2020
* Wilson D.J.
* Canning D.
* Giacomazzi T.
* Keels K.
* Lothrop R.
* Renaud D.L.
* Sillett N.
* Taylor D.
* van Huigenbos H.
* Wynands B.
* Zuest D.
* Fraser D.
Hot topic: Health and welfare challenges in the marketing of male dairy
calves—Findings and consensus of an expert consultation.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (33069400): 11628-11635
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-18438
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (22)
* Google Scholar
). Calves experience multiple challenges throughout transportation, such as
handling, loading, and unloading, varying weather conditions, comingling with
unfamiliar calves, and long periods of feed and water withdrawal (
Trunkfield and Broom, 1990
* Trunkfield H.R.
* Broom D.M.
The welfare of calves during handling and transport.
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1990; 28: 135-152
https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(90)90050-N
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; reviewed by
Creutzinger et al., 2021
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Pempek J.
* Habing G.
* Proudfood K.
* Locke S.
* Wilson D.
* Renaud D.L.
Perspectives on the Management of Surplus Dairy Calves in the United States and
Canada.
Front. Vet. Sci. 2021; 8 (33928141)661453
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.661453
* Crossref
* PubMed
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) – all of which may exacerbate morbidities.
Young, transported dairy calves commonly experience dehydration (
Pempek et al., 2017
* Pempek J.
* Trearchis D.
* Masterson M.
* Habing G.
* Proudfoot K.
Veal calf health on 715 the day of arrival at growers in Ohio.
Journal of Animal Science. 2017; 95 (716)3863
doi:https://doi.org/10.2527/jas2017.1642
* Google Scholar
), diarrhea (
Bähler et al., 2012
* Bähler C.
* Steiner A.
* Luginbühl A.
* Ewy A.
* Posthaus H.
* Strabel D.
* Kaufmann T.
Risk factors for death and unwanted early slaughter in Swiss veal calves kept
617 at a specific animal welfare standard.
Research in Veterinary Science. 2012; 92 (G. 616 Regula, 618): 162-168
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.10.009
* Crossref
* PubMed
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), and respiratory disease (
Pardon et al., 2012
* Pardon B.
* de Bleecker K.
* Hostens M.
* Callens J.
* Dewulf J.
* Deprez P.
702 Longitudinal study on morbidity and mortality in white veal calves in
Belgium. BMC 703.
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* Crossref
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
) after arrival to calf-raising facilities. Specifically, in the weeks after
arrival to a Canadian calf-raising facility, up to 90% of calves were treated
for diarrhea or bovine respiratory disease at least once (
Scott et al., 2019
* Scott K.
* Kelton D.F.
* Duffield T.F.
* Renaud D.L.
Risk factors identified on arrival associated with morbidity and mortality at a
grain-fed veal facility: A prospective single cohort study.
J. Dairy Sci. 2019; 102 (31378492): 9224-9235
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16829
* Abstract
* Full Text
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). It is likely that this compromised condition at arrival contributes to
mortality in surplus calves (
Renaud et al., 2018
* Renaud D.L.
* Duffield T.F.
* LeBlanc S.J.
* Ferguson S.
* Haley D.B.
* Kelton D.F.
Risk factors associated with mortality at a milk-fed veal calf facility: A
prospective cohort study.
J. Dairy Sci. 2018; 101 (29290439): 2659-2668
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13581
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (65)
* Google Scholar
). High mortality is an additional issue for surplus calves, with 42% of
mortality occurring within the first 21 d after arrival to calf-raising
facilities (
Renaud et al., 2018
* Renaud D.L.
* Duffield T.F.
* LeBlanc S.J.
* Ferguson S.
* Haley D.B.
* Kelton D.F.
Risk factors associated with mortality at a milk-fed veal calf facility: A
prospective cohort study.
J. Dairy Sci. 2018; 101 (29290439): 2659-2668
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13581
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (65)
* Google Scholar
).
Calves are typically fasted for long periods of time during transportation (
Roadknight et al., 2021
* Roadknight N.
* Mansell P.
* Jongman E.
* Courtman N.
* Fisher A.
Invited review: The welfare of young calves transported by road.
J. Dairy Sci. 2021; 104 (33714583): 6343-6357
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-19346
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Google Scholar
). Limited access to feed and water during transportation has been shown to
cause marked effects on fat mobilization, and as a result, feed deprivation
during transportation is associated with a lighter body weight upon arrival to
calf-raising facilities (
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
; Rot et al., 2021). For example, at arrival to a calf-raising facility, calves
that were transported and feed deprived for 12 h and 16 h had greater
concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids and β-hydroxy-butyrate (
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
) and lighter body weights (Rot et al., 2021) compared with calves transported
for 6 h. Furthermore, extensive periods of feed deprivation and dehydration
around transportation in calves results in changes in strong ion concentrations
in the blood, which can lead to blood acid-base imbalances causing a mild
metabolic acidosis (Schaefer et al., 1998, 1990, 1992;
Wilms et al., 2023
* Wilms J.N.
* Carvalho I.P.
* van Empel M.
* Martín-Tereso J.
Mineral and glycerol concentrations in drinking water on body weight loss and
acid-base balance in feed-deprived Holstein bulls.
J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. (Berl.). 2023; 107 (35343631): 77-88
https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13700
* Crossref
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).Regulations regarding feed deprivation in transported calves vary by country.
For example, in Europe, calves may be transported for up to 9 h before requiring
a rest stop but can be fasted for up to 19 h (
Council of the European Union, 2004
* Council of the European Union
Council Regulation (EC) Number 1/2005 on the 629 Protection of Animals during
Transport and Related Operations and Amending Directives 630 64/432/EEC and
93/119/EC and Regulation (EC) No 1255/97.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32005R0001&from=en
Date: 2004
Date accessed: March 16, 2023
* Google Scholar
). Comparatively, in the United States, calves can be transported without feed,
water, and rest for up to 28 h (
United States Government, 2011
* United States Government
Title 49–Section 80502–Transportation of Animals.
Government Printing Office, 2011: 1219-1220
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2011-title49/pdf/USCODE-2011-title49-subtitleX-chap805-sec80502.pdf
Date accessed: June 2, 2023
* Google Scholar
). Regulations in Canada state that calves can be transported for up to 12 h
until a rest period is required where they must be provided with feed, water,
and rest (Government of Canada, 2022). Currently, there is little research
evaluating feeding practices during rest periods in young dairy calves.
Dehydration is a common challenge for calves transported long-distances.
Previous research has found that 35% of calves are clinically dehydrated upon
arrival to calf-raising facilities after long-distance transportation (
Pempek et al., 2017
* Pempek J.
* Trearchis D.
* Masterson M.
* Habing G.
* Proudfoot K.
Veal calf health on 715 the day of arrival at growers in Ohio.
Journal of Animal Science. 2017; 95 (716)3863
doi:https://doi.org/10.2527/jas2017.1642
* Google Scholar
). Feeding an ORS to dairy calves before or in the middle of transportation has
been explored to minimize dehydration. For example,
Knowles et al., 1997
* Knowles T.G.
* Warriss P.D.
* Brown S.N.
* Edwards J.E.
* Watkins P.E.
* Philips A.J.
Effects on calves less than one month old of feeding or not feeding them during
road transport of up to 24 hours.
Vet. Rec. 1997; 140 (9042695): 116-124
https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.140.5.116
* Crossref
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found that one month old calves fed an ORS during the middle of a 16 h
transportation bout resulted in fewer dehydrated calves than those fed MR.
However,
Marcato et al., 2020a
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on
physiological status of young veal calves.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32037174): 3505-3520
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17445
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (27)
* Google Scholar
found that a single feeding of 1.5 L of MR to male Holstein-Friesian and
dairy-beef cross calves before 6 h of transportation resulted in less fat
mobilization but more dehydration than calves fed ORS. However, after 18 h of
transportation, there were no differences in fat mobilization between treatment
groups, although calves given MR were less dehydrated (
Marcato et al., 2020a
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on
physiological status of young veal calves.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32037174): 3505-3520
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17445
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (27)
* Google Scholar
). It is currently unclear what the best feeding practices and ORS compositions
are for transported calves to mitigate negative outcomes after arrival to
calf-raising facilities. Commercially used ORS are generally high in sodium to
replenish electrolyte losses from diarrhea and dehydration in calves (
Wilms et al., 2020
* Wilms J.N.
* Echeverry-Munera J.
* Engelking L.
* Leal L.N.
* Martín-Tereso J.
Tonicity of oral rehydration solutions affects water, mineral and acid-base
balance in calves with naturally occurring diarrhoea.
J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. (Berl.). 2020; 104 (32621377): 1655-1670
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diarrhea (Shcaefer et al., 1997;
Steinhardt and Hans-Herma, 1998
* Steinhardt M.
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* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
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A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part I. Impact on health and growth.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797186): 2784-2799
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22366
* Abstract
* Full Text
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,
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
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) likely due to feed deprivation (
Wilms et al., 2023
* Wilms J.N.
* Carvalho I.P.
* van Empel M.
* Martín-Tereso J.
Mineral and glycerol concentrations in drinking water on body weight loss and
acid-base balance in feed-deprived Holstein bulls.
J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. (Berl.). 2023; 107 (35343631): 77-88
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Trefz et al., 2015
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* Zitzl J.
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* Knubben-Schweizer G.
* Lorenz I.
Risk Factors for the Development of Hypokalemia in Neonatal Diarrheic Calves.
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Wilms et al., 2023
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* Carvalho I.P.
* van Empel M.
* Martín-Tereso J.
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acid-base balance in feed-deprived Holstein bulls.
J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. (Berl.). 2023; 107 (35343631): 77-88
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found that feeding calves a high potassium ORS to feed deprived Holstein bulls
resulted in lower body weight loss and maintenance of acid-base balance. Based
on this evidence, providing transported calves with a high potassium ORS may
mitigate negative health and growth outcomes after arrival to calf-raising
facilities. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the use of a high
potassium ORS in transported calves to address the different electrolyte
imbalances of transported calves compared with diarrheic calves.
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of feeding calves
either MR (26% crude protein and 20% fat), a high sodium ORS developed for
diarrhea (ORS-D), or a high potassium ORS developed for transported calves
(ORS-T) during a rest period between 2 legs of transportation on growth,
activity behaviors, and metabolic and clinical indicators of health. The study
also aimed to examine how the treatments impacted morbidity and mortality in the
14-d following arrival to the calf-raising facility. We hypothesized that calves
fed MR during a rest period would experience less energy mobilization and would
lose less body weight during transportation than calves fed an ORS. We also
hypothesized that calves fed MR during a rest period would have a lower
prevalence of factors associated with morbidity and mortality, such as a sunken
flank and dehydration, and therefore have a lower risk of morbidity and
mortality in the weeks after arrival to the calf-raising facility.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
DATA COLLECTION, ANIMALS, AND HOUSING
Calves were sourced from a single dairy farm and ear tagged before
transportation. Calves were loaded between 8:30 a.m. and 9:00 a.m. onto a single
20.9 m2 (9.1 m × 2.3 m) gooseneck trailer that was disinfected before
transportation and deep bedded with clean, chopped straw in the winter and
spring (cohorts 1 and 2; February and April) and sawdust in the summer (cohorts
3 and 4; June and July). A total of 4 cohorts were transported from February
until July 2022. The first, second, and fourth cohort transported 35 calves and
the third cohort transported 24 calves. Calves had a space allowance of 0.43 m2
in cohorts 1, 2, and 4, and 0.60 m2 per calf in cohort 3. Different drivers were
used for each cohort; however, the same cattle transportation company and truck
and trailer were used throughout.
At the holding facility, calves were housed indoors in pens separated by corral
gates on saw-dust bedding. Calves were housed in 3 separate pens according to
the color of livestock marker to ensure that researchers fed the calves the
correct treatment assignments. However, the treatment assignments were
randomized to each pen by cohort to ensure that each pen was represented by each
treatment group throughout the study. The number of calves per pen was dependent
on the number of calves per treatment during the transportation cohort (cohort
1, 2, and 4 = 12 calves per pen; cohort 3 = 8 calves per pen). Calves were not
given free-choice access to water or solid feed during the rest period as the
holding facility was not equipped to do so. They were rested for 8 h at the
holding facility before the second leg of transportation.
Calves were transported for 6 h from the holding facility to the calf-raising
facility. After arrival to the calf-raising facility, they were housed in
individual hutches outdoors and had outdoor access by tether. The hutches were
deep bedded on chopped straw for cohort 1 in February and cohort 2 in April and
saw-dust bedding in the summer for cohort 3 in June and cohort 4 in July. Calves
were fed 3.0 L of MR (22% crude protein and 17% fat) twice daily by bucket until
weaning at 56 d after arrival. During the preweaning period, calves had ad
libitum access to solid feed and water. Weaning occurred gradually over a 2-wk
period and, after weaning, were fed only calf starter, which was blended on farm
and contained 18% protein. Water was provided every day. Calves that experienced
diarrhea were provided with meloxicam (2.5 mL/100 kg subcutaneously once;
Metacam, Boeringher Ingelheim) and, if they continued to have diarrhea, they
received trimethoprim sulfadoxine (3 mL/45 kg intramuscularly once per day for 3
consecutive days; Borgal, Merck). Mortality and disease treatment records were
kept by the producer and sent to researchers.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
This randomized controlled study was conducted at a livestock holding facility
and a commercial calf-raising facility within 100 km from the University of
Guelph in southern Ontario, Canada from February to July 2022. Animal use was
approved by the University of Guelph Animal Care Committee (Animal Use Protocol
#4430). Calves (n = 129) were sourced from a single dairy farm and transported
in 4 cohorts by road continuously for 12 h to a livestock holding facility. Both
Holstein (n = 70) and dairy-beef cross (n = 59) calves were included in the
study. Calves were assigned to treatments using a random allocation sequence
generated in Microsoft Excel version 16.66 (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA), which
was applied in the order that calves were unloaded from the trailer at the
holding facility. To indicate the treatment assigned to the calves, they were
marked on their back with a chalk-based colored livestock marker. For each
cohort, the color representing the treatments changed so that a different color
represented a different treatment each time. Additionally, as the livestock
marker was chalk-based and the calves were housed outdoors at the calf-raising
facility, it did not remain on them after 24 h. The 3 treatments included: milk
replacer (MR; n = 43; 130 g/L; Mapleview Agri LTD, Palmerston, Canada; Table 1),
high sodium ORS developed for calves with diarrhea (ORS-D; n = 43; 57.5 g/L;
Mapleview Agri LTD, Palmerston, Canada), and high potassium ORS developed for
transported calves (ORS-T; n = 42; 43 g/L; Trouw Nutrition, Amstersfoot,
Netherlands). Both ORS treatments were designed to have a high strong ion
difference (SID, > 60 mEq/L) to maintain or restore blood acid–base balance
(Smith and Berchtold, 2014). In ORS-D, the high SID was driven by high sodium
concentration, whereas in ORS-T, the high SID was driven by high potassium
concentration, to align with the strong ion theory, which states that ORS should
deliver an excess of strong cations (sodium and potassium) relative to the
concentration of strong anions (chloride;
Constable, 2014
* Constable P.D.
Acid-base assessment: When and how to apply the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
and strong ion difference theory.
Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 2014; 30 (24980723): 295-316
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvfa.2014.03.001
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Google Scholar
). The MR fed at the holding facility was a skim milk powder base with a blend
of 80% palm and 20% coconut as the fat source. The MR and ORS treatments were
mixed at the holding facility in their respective buckets using a drill mixer
until the mixture was visibly homogeneous. Calves were fed 2 L of their
treatment by bottle twice: within 1 h after arrival and within 1 h before
reloading at the holding facility. Refusals were measured by volume (mL) and
recorded. Blood samples and body weights were taken at arrival to and before
departure from the holding facility.
Table 1Comparison of Composition of Treatments
Milk Replacer (MR)Diarrhea Electrolyte (ORS-D)Transportation Electrolyte
(ORS-T)Dosage (g/L)13057.543ME (MJ/kg DM product)20.212.010.6ME in 2.0 L
solution (MJ)5.451.070.63SugarsGlucose mmol/L02140Lactose
mmol/L185077.9MineralsSodium mmol/L3112534.6Potassium mmol/L2127104.8Chloride
mmol/L377227.8Alkalizing
AgentsBicarbonate—3519.5Citrate—1219.2Propionate—034.6Osmolality
(mOsm/kg)367542319SID (mEq/L)4580112Glu:Na Ratio—1.74.5
* Open table in a new tab
After loading for the second leg of transportation, calves were continuously
transported by road for 6 h to a commercial calf-raising facility where they
were removed from the truck, weighed, placed into individual hutches by tether
and health scored immediately after arrival. Additional blood samples were taken
from the subset of calves immediately after offloading the truck at 0 h, and at
24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after arrival. Calves were weighed again at 24 h, 48 h, 72
h, 5 d, 7 d, 10 d, 14 d, and 8 wk after arrival. Calves were health scored daily
by 2 researchers (e.g., further described in health exam section) for 14 d
following arrival. The first author (AB), who completed health assessments at
the holding and calf-raising facilities, was aware of which livestock marker
color represented each treatment and was thus not blinded to the treatment
allocation; however, other observers and researchers were blinded. The
calf-raiser and staff responsible for disease treatment and feeding at the
calf-raising facility were also blinded to the treatment groups.
BLOOD METABOLITES
A subset of calves was randomly selected to have blood samples taken (MR = 20,
ORS-D = 22, ORS-T = 23) using a random allocation sequence generated in
Microsoft Excel version 16.66 (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA) and were blocked by
treatment group. Calves were marked on their back with a livestock marker to
indicate their treatment group and if a blood sample was needed. Blood samples
were taken via jugular venipuncture from calves within the blood sampling subset
using a 20-gauge 1-inch needle into a 10 mL serum vacuum tube without
anticoagulant (BD Vacutainer Serum Blood Collection Tubes; Becton, Dickinson and
Co.). Blood was allowed to clot, then centrifuged at 1,500 x g for 15 min. Serum
was separated into 2 samples and stored at −20°C until further analysis.
BODY WEIGHT
Calves were weighed using a TruTest S3 Weight Scale System (Datamars Livestock,
Mineral Wells, TX).
BEHAVIOR
IceQube accelerometers (IceRobotics, Edinburgh, Scotland) were attached with a
Velcro leg-strap (IceRobotics, Edinburgh, Scotland) to the medial hind left leg
of a subset of calves (n = 87). Due to availability of accelerometers, only
calves in the second, third, and fourth cohort were equipped with activity
monitors (MR = 29, ORS-D = 29, ORS-T = 29).
OUTCOME ASSESSMENT
BLOOD SAMPLING
Samples taken immediately after unloading at the holding facility (baseline)
were sent to Saskatchewan Colostrum Company for IgG analysis by radial
immunodiffusion analysis (Saskatoon, SK, CAN). Serum samples were processed by
the Animal Health Laboratory at the University of Guelph for nonesterified fatty
acids (NEFA), β-hydroxy-butyrate (BHB), creatine kinase (CK), lactose
dehydrogenase (LDH), and cholesterol concentration. Randox NEFA and Randox BHB
kits (Randox Laboratories Canada Ltd., Mississauga, ON) were used to assess NEFA
and BHB concentrations. A CK assay (Roche, Mississauga, ON) was used to assess
the CK concentrations. A Roche CHOL2 kit (Roche, Mississauga, ON) was used to
assess the concentration of cholesterol and a Roche LDHI2 kit (Roche,
Mississauga, ON) was used to assess the concentration of LDH. The intra-assay
coefficients of variation (%) for BHB, NEFA, cholesterol, and CKwere 1.20, 2.06,
0.97, and 0.80, respectively (
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
). The inter-assay coefficients (%) for BHB, NEFA, cholesterol, and CK were
2.96, 4.06, 3.62, and 1.12, respectively (
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
).
At the time of the serum samples, a second 10 mL blood sample was taken via
jugular venipuncture with a reduced heparin arterial blood gas sampler (Vyaire
Medical, Mettawa, IL) and analyzed within an hour of collection with an i-STAT
EC8+ cartridge in an i-STAT Alinity V hand-held analyzer (Abaxis, Union City,
CA) for concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, anion gap ([Na + K] –
([Cl + HCO3), glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), hematocrit, hemoglobin, pH,
pCO2, TCO2, HCO3, and base excess (the amount of an acid or a base required to
return the blood to a pH of 7.4 (
Hopper
* Hopper K.
Chapter 54: Traditional Acid-Base Analysis. 2015. Small Animal Critical Care
Medicine: 289–295.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-0306-7.00054-4
* Google Scholar
); BE). The inter-assay coefficient of variation (%) for sodium, potassium,
chloride, glucose, BUN, pH, and pCO2 were 0.40, 1.30, 0.70, 1.60, 1.40, 0.08,
and 2.50, respectively (
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
).
Selected blood disorders were classified as follows: respiratory acidosis as a
pH <7.370, PCO2 > 58.7 mmHg, and blood BE between >2.6 mmol/L <10.8 mmol/L;
metabolic acidosis as a pH <7.370, PCO2 > 43.3 mmHg but <58.7 mmHg and BE <2.6
mmol/L (
Constable, 2000
* Constable P.D.
Clinical assessment of acid-base status: Comparison of the Henderson-Hasselbalch
and strong ion approaches.
Vet. Clin. Pathol. 2000; 29 (12070822): 115-128
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* Crossref
* PubMed
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;
Constable, 2014
* Constable P.D.
Acid-base assessment: When and how to apply the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
and strong ion difference theory.
Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 2014; 30 (24980723): 295-316
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvfa.2014.03.001
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Google Scholar
).
HEALTH OUTCOMES
Two researchers conducted daily health exams which included an assessment of
fecal consistency (normal (0); semi formed, pasty (1); loose, stays on top of
bedding (2); or watery, sifts through bedding (3); where a score of ≥2 was
considered abnormal;
McGuirk, 2008
* McGuirk S.M.
Disease Management of Dairy Calves and Heifers.
Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 2008; 24 (18299036): 139-153
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvfa.2007.10.003
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* Full Text
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;
Renaud et al., 2020
* Renaud D.L.
* Buss L.
* Wilms J.N.
* Steele M.A.
Technical note: Is fecal consistency scoring an accurate measure of fecal dry
matter in dairy calves?.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32921450): 10709-10714
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-18907
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
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* Google Scholar
), navel inflammation (normal, < 1.3 cm (0), slightly enlarged, not warm or
painful (1), slightly enlarged with slight pain or moisture (2), enlarged with
pain, heat, or discharge (2); ≥ 2 was considered abnormal;
Renaud et al., 2018
* Renaud D.L.
* Duffield T.F.
* LeBlanc S.J.
* Ferguson S.
* Haley D.B.
* Kelton D.F.
Risk factors associated with mortality at a milk-fed veal calf facility: A
prospective cohort study.
J. Dairy Sci. 2018; 101 (29290439): 2659-2668
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13581
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (65)
* Google Scholar
), joint score (>0 was considered abnormal), respiratory scoring (presence or
absence of a spontaneous cough (0 or 2), abnormal nasal discharge (0 or 2),
ocular discharge (0 or 2), abnormal respiratory rate (0 or 2) and/or uni- or
bi-lateral ear droop (0 or 4); ≥ 5 was considered abnormal;
Love et al., 2014
* Love W.J.
* Lehenbauer T.W.
* Kass P.H.
* van Eenennaam A.L.
* Aly S.S.
Development of a novel clinical scoring system for on-farm diagnosis of bovine
respiratory disease in pre-weaned dairy calves.
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), sunken flank (flank not sunken = 0, flank sunken = 1), attitude (bright and
alert = 0, slightly depressed = 1, depressed = 2;
Goetz et al., 2023a
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part I. Impact on health and growth.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797186): 2784-2799
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22366
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (3)
* Google Scholar
), and rectal temperature (≥39.5°C was considered a fever).
Immediately after unloading at the holding facility, immediately after arrival
to the calf raising facility, and 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after arrival, a more
thorough health exam was conducted including assessing calves for dehydration
(presence of a skin tent ≥2 s and/or eye recession ≥2 mm; Wilson et al., 2000)
and weakness (calf stands up by itself = not weak, calf needed assistance from
the researchers to stand = weak). All health exam outcomes were recorded in a
Qualtrics survey on a tablet and processed into CSV files in Microsoft Excel.
The observer agreement was calculated after one of the daily health exams, one
researcher performed health exams on 100 calves that were housed at the facility
for one week. The second researcher also performed health exams on these calves
to calculate interobserver reliability. The calves used were not part of this
study. Interobserver reliability for health examinations was calculated using
SAS to assess the κ statistic and was 0.86 between researchers one and 2.
GROWTH OUTCOMES
Body weight loss during transportation was assessed as a percentage from the
time reloading at the holding facility until arrival at the calf-raising
facility (Percent BW loss = [(body weight at arrival to the calf-raising
facility - body weight at reloading at the holding facility / body weight at
reloading at the holding facility] x 100). Short-term ADG was assessed from the
time of unloading at the rest period until 14 d after arrival to the
calf-raising facility (short-term ADG = [(body weight at d 14 - body weight at
unloading at the rest period) / 14 d]). Long-ADG was assessed from the time of
unloading at the rest period until 8 wk after arrival to the calf-raising
facility (long-term ADG = [(body weight at 8 wk - body weight at unloading at
the rest period) / 56 d]).
LYING BEHAVIOR
Ear tag numbers of each calf and the serial number of the IceQube were recorded
to ensure that recorded lying behavior was associated with the correct calf.
Activity was recorded at 4 Hz and a summary of lying bouts (no./15 min), lying
time (min/15 min), and activity index was created for every calf in 15 min
summaries. The activity index is a metric which measures total activeness in the
calves, including total step counts and rate of acceleration (Cantor and Costa,
2022). The IceQubes were removed at d 14 after arrival to the calf raising
facility, scanned using an RFID reader, and sent to the CowAlert data cloud. The
data were exported as a Microsoft Excel CSV file to be summarized. Daily lying
time (h/d), lying bouts (no./d), and activity index were summarized from 12:00
a.m. on the day of transportation until 11:59 p.m. on the third day after
arrival to the calf-raiser in 24 h periods. Percentage of lying time (min/360
min of transportation), number of lying bouts, and activity index were
summarized from the time calves were loaded onto the trailer at the holding
facility (6:30 a.m.) until calves were unloaded at the calf-raising facility
(12:30 p.m.). Over the course of the study, calves were loaded onto the trailer
no earlier than 6:30 a.m. and arrived at the calf-raising facility no later than
12:30 p.m. on the same day.
EXCLUSION CRITERIA
Fitness for the first leg of transportation was assessed by the truck driver at
the time of loading at the dairy farm before transportation. Per the Health of
Animals Regulation, only calves that were not dehydrated, able to stand, and had
a healed umbilicus were transported (
Government of Canada, 2020
* Government of Canada
Health of Animals Regulations: Part XII: Transport of Animals-Regulatory
Amendment.
Retrieved from the Government of Canada website:
https://www.inspection.gc.ca/animal-health/humane-transport/health-of-animals-regulations-part-xii/eng/1582126008181/1582126616914
Date: 2020
* Google Scholar
). If calves showed signs of distress (e.g., open mouth breathing, lateral
recumbency, depression) at any time before reloading for the second leg of
transportation at the holding facility, they were removed from the study and
treated by a veterinarian. One calf was excluded from the study due to lack of
fitness for transportation after unloading at the holding facility. This calf
was not assigned a study treatment, evaluated by a veterinarian, and humanely
euthanized.
SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATION
TRANSPORTATION
The sample size calculation was performed a priori based on physiological
outcomes outlined by Rot et al. (2021), based on average body weight in
transported calves before and after transportation (51.0 kg and 47.0 kg
[standard deviation = 6.0 kg]). A total of 37 calves per group was required to
achieve 80% power (β) with 95% confidence (α = 0.05). We estimated that calves
fed electrolytes would likely lose more body weight than calves fed MR.
BLOOD SAMPLING
The sample size calculation was performed a priori based on hematological
outcomes outlined by
Knowles et al., 1999
* Knowles T.G.
* Brown S.N.
* Edwards J.E.
* Philips A.J.
* Warriss P.D.
Effect on young calves of a one-hour feeding stop during a 19-hour road journey.
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. Based on estimated NEFA concentrations that would occur in calves that were
fed milk replacer compared with those fed an ORS during a rest period (335
µmol/L vs 514 µmol/L, respectively [standard deviation = 144 mmol/L]), a total
of 12 calves per group were required to achieve 80% power (β) with 95%
confidence (α = 0.05).
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data were imported into Stata 17 from Microsoft Excel (StataCorp LP, College
Station, TX) for statistical analysis. Calf was the experimental unit for all
analyses. The assumption of independence was evaluated using Spearman Rank
coefficients for each of the variables and determined to be fulfilled if values
were <0.6. A univariable regression analysis was conducted between each outcome
and predictor variable. Linearity between the outcome and each predictor
variable was assessed visually. If a variable did not have a linear relationship
with the outcome, it was categorized into quartiles. Predictor variables with P
< 0.2 were included for assessment in the multivariable models. Stepwise
backward elimination was used to build the final models, in which variables with
P < 0.05 were included in the final models. Statistical significance was
reported at P < 0.05. Tendencies were reported at 0.05 < P < 0.10. Normality of
residuals was evaluated for each of the models visually using residual plots. In
all models, calves fed MR were set as the referent group; results are presented
as margins of difference. In models using repeated measures, the interaction
between treatment and sample time was included as a fixed effect and calf was
included as a random effect. In each model, treatment group was forced into the
model as a fixed effect and transportation cohort was included as a random
effect. In lieu of multivariable models, chi-squared tests were used for
categorical outcomes and a Fisher's exact test was used for outcomes with ≤5
observations per category. In models assessing blood gas and clinical health
outcomes, dehydration at baseline was included as a covariate to account for the
increased number of calves dehydrated at baseline in the ORS-D group. Models
used for the analysis of health and behavior outcomes are outlined in Table 2.
To account for type I error, a Bonferroni adjustment was made for each repeated
measures model.
Table 2:Description of the models used to analyze health and behavior outcomes
ModelModel TypeOutcome(s)Follow-up periodFixed EffectsRandom EffectsRepeated
Measure1Mixed effects logisitic regression model with repeated
measuresProportion of calves with dehydration per day72 hTreatment group,
baseline dehydration, interaction between treatment group and sample timeCalf,
transportation cohortSample time2Mixed effects logistic regression model with
repeated measuresProportion of calves with a sunken flank per day72 hTreatment
group, breed, interaction between treatment group and sample timeCalf,
transportation cohortSample time3Mixed effects logistic regression model with
repeated measuresProportion of calves with a fever per day14 dTreatment group,
breed, interaction between treatment group and sample timeCalf, transportation
cohortSample time4Mixed effects Poisson regressionNumber of days with diarrhea14
dTreatment group, baseline disease, interaction between treatment group and
sample timeTransportation cohort—5Mixed effects Poisson regressionNumber of days
with signs of respiratory disease14 dTreatment group, baseline disease,
interaction between treatment group and sample timeTransportation cohort—6Mixed
effects linear regression modelPercentage of body weight lost during
transportation6 hTreatment group, transportation cohort, baseline body
weightTransportation cohort—7Mixed effects linear regression modelADG over the
first 14 d after arrival14 dTreatment group, transportation cohort, baseline
body weightTransportation cohort—8Mixed effects linear regression modelADG over
56 d after arrival8 weeksTreatment group, transportation cohort, baseline body
weightTransportation cohort—9Mixed effects linear regression model with repeated
measuresBody weight at each sampling time8 weeksTreatment group, sample time,
interaction between treatment and sample timeCalf, transportation cohortSample
time10Mixed effects linear regression modelPercentage of time spent lying down,
number of lying bouts, and activity index during transportation6 hTreatment
groupTransportation cohort—11Mixed effects linear regression with repeated
measuresDaily lying time, lying bouts, and activity index3 dBaseline body
weight, and the interaction between treatment group and dayCalf, transportation
cohortDay
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BLOOD PARAMETERS
For each blood parameter, a repeated measures mixed linear regression model was
created to identify factors associated with each outcome over time. Predictor
variables included treatment, baseline body weight (weight after unloading at
the holding facility), breed (dairy-beef cross or Holstein), and percentage of
body weight lost during transportation; transportation cohort (1 – 4) and calf
were included as a random effects and sample time was included as the repeated
measure. Baseline dehydration and baseline values for each blood parameter were
forced into each model as a covariate.
Additionally, mixed effects Poisson regression models were created to assess the
number of times each calf was categorized with metabolic and respiratory
acidosis from unloading at the holding facility to 48 h after arrival to the
calf-raiser (5 sampling time points). Predictor variables included treatment,
baseline body weight (weight at unloading at the holding facility), and breed
(dairy-beef or Holstein). In the final model, treatment group and baseline body
weight were included as fixed effects; transportation cohort (1 – 4) and calf
were included as a random effects.
HEALTH OUTCOMES
To determine the effect of the treatments on health outcomes, predictor
variables included treatment (MR, ORS-D, ORS-T), body weight at unloading at the
holding facility (baseline), and breed (dairy-beef or Holstein). The presence or
absence of diarrhea at unloading at the holding facility (baseline) and the
presence or absence of dehydration at unloading at the holding facility
(baseline) were also included as predictor variables in the models assessing
occurrence of dehydration, a sunken flank, and diarrhea.
A repeated measure logistic regression model was created to identify factors
associated with dehydration. In the final model, treatment group, presence or
absence of dehydration at baseline, and the interaction between treatment group
and sample time were included as fixed effects; transportation cohort (1 – 4)
and calf were included as a random effects and sample time was included as a
repeated measure. A repeated measure logistic regression model was created to
identify factors associated with the presence of a sunken flank. In the final
model, treatment group, breed, and the interaction between treatment group and
sample time were included as fixed effects; transportation cohort (1 – 4) and
calf were included as a random effects and sample time was included as a
repeated measure. A repeated measure logistic regression model was created to
identify factors associated with the presence of a fever. In the final model,
treatment group, breed, and the interaction between treatment group and sample
time were included as fixed effects; transportation cohort (1 – 4) and calf were
included as random effects and sample time was included as a repeated measure.
Mixed effects Poisson regression models were created to assess the number of
days calves had diarrhea and signs of respiratory disease during the 14 d after
transportation. In the final model, treatment group, presence or absence of
disease (diarrhea or respiratory disease) at baseline, and the interaction
between treatment group and sample time were included as fixed effects;
transportation cohort (1 – 4) was included as a random effect.
GROWTH OUTCOMES
Mixed linear regression models were created to identify factors associated with
the percentage of body weight lost during transportation, ADG over the first 14
d after arrival to the calf-raising facility, and ADG over 8 weeks Predictor
variables included treatment group (MR, ORS-D, ORS-T), body weight at unloading
at the holding facility (baseline), and breed (dairy-beef or Holstein). In the
final models for both percentage of body weight lost and growth over the
different periods, treatment group, transportation cohort (1 – 4), and body
weight at baseline were included as fixed effects; transportation cohort (1 – 4)
was included as a random effect.
A repeated measures mixed linear regression model was created to identify
factors associated with body weight at each sampling time. In the final model,
treatment (MR, ORS-D, ORS-T), transportation cohort (1 – 4), sample time
(unloading at holding facility, reloading at holding facility, arrival to
calf-raising facility, 24 h, 48 h, 5 d, 7 d, 10 d, 14 d, 8 wk), and the
interaction between treatment and sample time were included as fixed effects;
transportation cohort (1 – 4) and calf were included as random effects.
BEHAVIOR OUTCOMES
To analyze the association of treatment (MR, ORS-D, ORS-T) with calf behavior,
body weight at unloading at the holding facility (baseline), breed,
transportation cohort, presence or absence of diarrhea at unloading at the
holding facility (baseline), presence or absence of respiratory disease at
unloading at the holding facility (baseline), and number of diseases (0 = none,
1 = diarrhea or respiratory disease, 2 = diarrhea and respiratory disease) at
unloading at the holding facility (baseline) were included as predictor
variables.
A mixed linear regression model was used to assess the percentage of lying time
(%), lying bouts (no.), and activity index during transportation. In each model,
treatment group and was included as a fixed effect and transportation cohort (1
– 4) was included as a random effect. Repeated measures mixed linear regression
models were used to assess daily lying time (h/d), daily lying bouts (no./d),
and daily activity index. In each model, treatment group, baseline body weight,
transportation cohort, and the interaction between treatment group and sample
time were included as fixed effects; transportation cohort (1 – 4) and calf were
included as random effects and day was the repeated measure.
RESULTS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
A total of 129 surplus dairy calves were enrolled in the study and transported
in 4 cohorts. Each cohort had 35 calves, except the third cohort, which had 24
calves. The sex of calves within the study was not recorded. The exact age of
calves at transportation was unknown, however all calves were under 14 d of age.
Holstein (n = 70) and dairy-beef cross (n = 59) calves were included in the
study. The average IgG concentration at unloading at the holding facility
(baseline) was 18.3 g/L ± 7.6, 18.2 g/L ± 7.7, and 18.7 g/L ± 6.3 for calves fed
MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T, respectively (Table 3). The average body weight at
unloading at the holding facility (baseline) was 43.9 kg ± 5.9, 43.7 kg ± 6.5,
and 45.0 kg ± 4.5 for calves fed MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T, respectively (Table 3).
There were no differences found between treatment groups for baseline IgG
concentration (P = 0.40) or body weight (P = 0.54), as determined by a
chi-squared test. No calves had an abnormal or swollen join at any of the time
points evaluated and, therefore, this outcome was not statistically analyzed.
Table 3:Mean and standard deviation of important baseline variables, IgG
concentration and body weight, of each treatment group
Milk replacer (n = 43)ORS-D (n = 43)ORS-T (n = 42)P-valueBaseline IgG (g/L)18.2
± 7.818.4 ± 8.218.6 ± 6.60.40Baseline body weight (kg)44.0 ± 6.043.7 ± 6.545.0 ±
4.50.54
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TREATMENT REFUSALS
In the first cohort, 1 calf in the ORS-D treatment group refused 0.25 L during
the first feeding. In the second cohort, 2 calves in the ORS-D treatment group
refused 2 L and 1 calf in the ORS-T refused 0.25 L during the second feeding. In
the third cohort, 1 calf in the ORS-D refused 0.5 L during the second feeding.
No calves refused treatments in the fourth cohort.
BLOOD PARAMETERS
FAT AND ENERGY MOBILIZATION
At arrival to the calf-raising facility, calves fed ORS-D had higher
concentrations of NEFA (Δ = +0.2 mmol/L, P < 0.01, 95% CI: 0.1 to 0.3) (Figure
1a) compared with those fed MR. With respect to BHB, calves in ORS-D (Δ = +48.7
µmol/L, P < 0.01, 95% CI: 14.6 to 82.7) and ORS-T (Δ = +39.9 µmol/L, P < 0.01,
95% CI: 6.8 to 72.9) (Figure 1b) had higher BHB concentrations than calves fed
MR. There was no effect of treatment on glucose concentrations (P > 0.10; Figure
1c).
Figure 1A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on (A) NEFA
concentrations, (B) BHB concentrations, and (C) glucose concentrations in
surplus dairy calves (n = 65). Calves fed MR were used as the referent group.
Pairwise comparisons were performed at each time point; ORS-D and ORS-T were
compared with MR (referent). The signifiers “a” and “b” denote a difference (P <
0.05) in NEFA or BHB concentrations between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D or
ORS-T, respectively, compared with MR. Rest period is defined as RP in the
graphs.
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BLOOD GAS AND BLOOD ACID-BASE
Before reloading at the holding facility, there was evidence that calves fed
ORS-D had a higher blood BE (Δ = +2.4 mmol/L; P = 0.07, 95% CI: −0.09 to 4.93;
Figure 2a) and calves fed ORS-D had higher HCO3 (Δ = +2.7 mmol/L; P < 0.01, 95%
CI: 0.6 to 4.9; Figure 2b) than calves fed MR. Additionally, at reloading at the
holding facility, both ORS-D had higher concentrations of tCO2 (ORS-D: Δ = +3.1
mmol/L, P = 0.01, 95% CI: 0.4 to 5.8; Figure 2c).
Figure 2A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on (A) BE, (B) HCO3,
(C) tCO2, (D) anion gap, (E) pCO2 concentrations, and (F) blood pH in surplus
dairy calves (n = 65). Pairwise comparisons were performed at each time point;
ORS-D and ORS-T were compared with MR (referent). The signifiers “a” and “b”
denote a difference (P < 0.05) in BE, HCO3, tCO2, anion gap, pCO2
concentrations, or blood pH between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T,
respectively, compared with MR. Rest period is defined as RP in the graphs.
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At arrival to the calf-raising facility, calves fed ORS-T had a higher BE
concentration (Δ = +3.02 mmol/L; P < 0.01, 95% CI: 0.53 to 5.50) than calves fed
MR. At arrival to the calf-raising facility, calves fed ORS-D and ORS-T both had
higher concentrations of tCO2 (ORS-D: Δ = +2.7 mmol/L, P = 0.045, 95% CI: 0.03
to 5.5; ORS-T: Δ = +3.6 mmol/L, P < 0.01, 95% CI: 1.0 to 6.3) and HCO3 (ORS-D: Δ
= +2.2 mmol/L, P = 0.045, 95% CI: 0.03 to 4.5; ORS-T: Δ = +3.1 mmol/L; P < 0.01,
95% CI: 0.9 to 5.3) than calves fed MR. There was no effect of treatment on
anion gap (Figure 2d), pCO2 (Figure 2e), or blood pH (Figure 2f).
BLOOD ELECTROLYTES
Before reloading at the holding facility, calves fed the ORS-D had higher
concentrations of sodium (Δ = +3.4 mmol/L; P = 0.01, 95% CI: 0.5 to 6.3; Figure
3a) than calves fed MR. There was also evidence that those in ORS-D had a higher
concentration of sodium at arrival to the calf raising facility (Δ = +2.8
mmol/L; P = 0.07, 95% CI: −0.1 to 5.8) compared with calves fed MR. There was no
effect of treatment on chloride and potassium concentrations (P > 0.10; Figure
3b,c).
Figure 3A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on (A) sodium, (B)
chloride, (C) and potassium concentrations in surplus dairy calves (n = 65).
Calves fed MR were used as the referent group. Pairwise comparisons were
performed at each time point; ORS-D and ORS-T were compared with MR (referent).
The signifiers “a” denote a difference (P < 0.05) in sodium concentrations
between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D compared with MR. Rest period is defined
as RP in the graphs.
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METABOLIC AND RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS
At unloading at the holding facility (baseline), 4/43 MR, 3/43 ORS-D, and 0/42
ORS-T calves had metabolic acidosis. In addition, upon arrival to the
calf-raising facility, 0/43 MR, 1/43 ORS-D, and 1/42 ORS-T calves had metabolic
acidosis. From unloading at the holding facility until 48 h after arrival to the
calf-raiser, metabolic acidosis was identified in 6/43 MR, 8/43 ORS-D, and 0/42
ORS-T calves. There was no effect of treatment on the proportion of sampling
times with metabolic acidosis (P > 0.10; Figure 4a).
Figure 4Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the proportion of sampling times with (A) metabolic acidosis or (B)
respiratory acidosis in surplus dairy calves (n = 65). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T
were compared with calves fed MR (referent).
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At unloading at the holding facility (baseline), 4/43 MR, 2/43 ORS-D, and 2/42
ORS-T calves had respiratory acidosis, whereas upon arrival to the calf-raising
facility, 1/43 MR, 2/43 ORS-D, and 1/42 ORS-T calves had respiratory acidosis.
From unloading at the holding facility until 48 h after arrival to the
calf-raiser (5 sampling time points), respiratory acidosis was identified in
4/43, 3/43, and 2/42 calves in the MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T groups, respectively.
There was no treatment effect on the proportion of sampling times with
respiratory acidosis (P > 0.10; Figure 4b).
TISSUE DAMAGE
There was no effect of treatment on LDH or CK concentrations at any of the
sampling time points (P > 0.10; Figure 5a,b).
Figure 5A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on concentration of (A)
LDH or (B) creatine kinase (CK) in surplus dairy calves (n = 65). Calves fed
ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent). Rest period is
defined as RP in the graphs.
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OTHER PARAMETERS
There was no effect of treatment on BUN, hematocrit, or hemoglobin
concentrations at any of the sampling time points (P > 0.10; Figure 6a,b,c).
Figure 6A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on concentration of (A)
blood urea nitrogen, (B) hematocrit, or (C) hemoglobin in surplus dairy calves
(n = 65). Pairwise comparisons were made at each time point; calves fed ORS-D or
ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent). Rest period is defined as RP
in the graphs.
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HEALTH OUTCOMES
MORTALITY
Within the first 14 d of arrival to the calf-raising facility, the mortality
rate was 9.4% (12/128). The mortality rate for calves fed MR, ORS-D, or ORS-T
was 4.7% (2/43), ORS-D 11.6% (5/43), and 11.9% (5/42), respectively, and there
were no differences in mortality rate by treatment (P > 0.10), as determined by
a Fisher's exact test. The mortality rate for cohorts 1, 2, 3, and 4 was 9.6%
(3/35), 5.7% (2/35), 0% (0/24), and 20% (7/35), respectively. Calves died on
average on d 5.1 ± 2.0 after arrival.
ATTITUDE
In the 14 d after arrival to the calf-raising facility, 57.8% (n = 74/128) of
calves were scored as slightly depressed or depressed at least once. In the MR,
ORS-D, and ORS-T groups, 58.1% (n = 25/43), 53.5% (n = 23/43), and 61.9% (n =
26/42) scored as slightly depressed or depressed at least once, respectively.
There were no statistical differences found between groups, as determined by a
chi-squared test (P > 0.10).
WEAKNESS
In the 14-d period after arrival to the calf-raising facility, 76.6% (n =
98/128) calves were scored as weak at least once. In the MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T
groups, 79.1% (n = 34/43), 67.4% (n = 29/43), and 81.4% (n = 35/42) scored as
weak at least once, respectively, within the first 14 d after arrival. Calves in
the MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T were scored as weak for an average of 39% ± 30.8, 34% ±
31.0, and 39.5% ± 27.9 of days within the first 14 d after arrival,
respectively, and there were no differences between groups, as determined by a
chi-squared test (P > 0.10).
DEHYDRATION
At unloading at the holding facility (baseline), more calves that were fed ORS-D
were dehydrated than calves that were fed MR (Δ = +1.6% (25 vs. 11 calves); P =
0.03, 95% CI: 0.10 to 3.1; Figure 7). From immediately after arrival to 72 h
after arrival to the calf-raiser, calves were scored once per day per calf.
Dehydration was observed 73/210, 81/212, and 83/208 times during health scoring
for calves fed MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T, respectively (calves may have been scored
as dehydrated multiple days in a row). There were no treatment effects on
dehydration at any sampling time point (P > 0.10) other than the baseline.
Figure 7A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on the proportion of
surplus calves with dehydration (n = 128) from unloading at the holding facility
to 72 h after arrival to the calf-raising facility. Calves fed MR were used as
the referent group. Pairwise comparisons were performed at each time point;
ORS-D and ORS-T were compared with MR (referent). The signifier “a” denotes a
difference (P < 0.05) in the proportion of surplus calves with dehydration
between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D compared with MR. Rest period is defined
as RP in the graphs.
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SUNKEN FLANK
At arrival to the calf-raising facility, 10, 7, and 7 calves in the MR, ORS-D,
and ORS-T groups had a sunken flank, respectively. In the 72 h following arrival
to the calf-raising facility, a sunken flank was identified 49/210, 35/212, and
50/208 times (a sunken flank could be identified multiple days in a row) in
calves in the MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T groups. There was no effect of treatment on
presence or absence of a sunken flank at any sampling time point (P > 0.10;
Figure 8).
Figure 8A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on the proportion of
surplus calves with a sunken flank (n = 128) from unloading at the holding
facility to 72 h after arrival to the calf-raising facility. Pairwise
comparisons were made at each time point; calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were
compared with calves fed MR (referent). Rest period is defined as RP in the
graphs.
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FEVER
In the 14-d period after arrival to the calf-raising facility, 99.2% (127/128)
of calves had a fever at least once. There were no differences in the proportion
of calves with a fever between calves fed ORS-T and ORS-D and MR (P > 0.10) on
any of the 14 d evaluated (Figure 9).
Figure 9A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on the proportion of
surplus calves with a fever (n = 128) from unloading at the holding facility to
14 d after arrival to the calf-raising facility. Pairwise comparisons were made
at each time point; calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR
(referent).
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DIARRHEA
In the 14-d period after arrival to the calf-raising facility, 97.6% (125/128)
of calves had diarrhea at least once. In the first week after arrival (d 0 – d
7), 120/128 calves had diarrhea at least once, while in the second week after
arrival (d 8 – d 14), 105/117 calves had diarrhea at least once. Calves had
their first bout of diarrhea on d 3.1 ± 2.6 after arrival to the calf raiser.
The median (range) number of days with diarrhea was 5 (0 to 12), 5 (0 to 10),
and 6 (0 to 11) d for calves fed MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T, respectively. There were
no differences in the number of days with diarrhea found between calves fed
ORS-D vs. MR (+0.03 d, P = 0.07, 95% CI: −0.18 to 0.34; Figure 10); however,
there was evidence that calves fed ORS-T had a higher number of days with
diarrhea than calves fed MR (+0.16 d, P = 0.09, 95% CI: −0.02 to 0.34).
Figure 10Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the proportion of days with diarrhea in surplus dairy calves (n =
128). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent). The
signifiers “b” denotes evidence for a difference (0.05 < P < 0.1) in the
proportion of days with diarrhea between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-T compared
with MR.
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RESPIRATORY DISEASE
In the 14 d after arrival to the calf-raising facility, 76.6% (98/128) of calves
presented outward signs of respiratory disease (i.e., met the criteria outlined
using the scoring guide) at least once. In the first week after arrival (d 0 to
d 7), 77/128 calves had outward signs of respiratory disease at least once,
while in the second week after arrival (d 8 d to 14), 86/117 calves had outward
signs of respiratory disease at least once. On average, calves had their first
day of respiratory disease on 7.8 ± 3.0 d after arrival to the calf raiser. The
median (range) number of days with respiratory disease was 2 (0 to 11), 2 (0 to
9), and 3 (0 to 11) for calves fed MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T, respectively. There
were no differences between calves fed ORS-D and MR (+0.10 d; P = 0.44, 95% CI:
−0.36 to 0.16; Figure 11); however, there was evidence that calves fed ORS-T had
a higher proportion of days with respiratory disease than calves fed MR (+0.22
d; P = 0.06, 95% CI: −0.01 to 0.46).
Figure 11Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the proportion of days with respiratory disease in surplus dairy
calves (n = 128). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR
(referent). The signifier “b” denotes evidence for a difference (0.05 < P < 0.1)
in the proportion of days with respiratory disease between surplus dairy calves
fed ORS-T compared with MR.
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ANTIMICROBIAL AND NSAID USE
Throughout the 14 d after arrival to the calf-raiser, 18.0% (23/128) of calves
were treated with an antimicrobial and 35.2% (45/128) of calves were treated
with an NSAID, at least once. In the MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T groups, 30.2% (13/43),
20.9%(9/43), and 9.5% (4/42) calves were treated with an antimicrobial at least
once, respectively, however no differences were observed between groups, as
determined by a chi-squared test (P > 0.10). Additionally, in the MR, ORS-D, and
ORS-T groups, 46.5 (20/43), 37.2 (16/43), and 20.9 (9/43) calves were treated
with an NSAID at least once, respectively, and no differences were observed, as
determined by a chi-squared test (P > 0.10).
GROWTH OUTCOMES
BODY WEIGHT AT EACH SAMPLING TIME
There was no effect of treatment on body weight at any sampling point (P > 0.10;
Figure 12).
Figure 12A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment fed (MR, ORS-D, or ORS-T) and body weight at each sampling point (kg)
in surplus dairy calves (n = 128). Calves fed MR were used as the referent
group. Pairwise comparisons were made at each time point; calves fed ORS-D or
ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent). Rest period is defined as RP
in the graphs.
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BODY WEIGHT LOSS DURING TRANSPORTATION
The average body weight loss was 4.1% ± 6.8, 2.0% ± 8.2, and 3.6% ± 6.7 for
calves in the MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T groups, respectively. There was no effect of
treatment on body weight loss during transportation (P > 0.10; Figure 13a).
Figure 13Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the percentage of body weight lost during transportation (A), average
daily gain over 14 d (B), and average daily gain over 8 weeks (C) in surplus
dairy calves (n = 128). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed
MR (referent).
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AVERAGE DAILY GAIN
The mean ADG over the first 14 d after arrival to the calf-raising facility was
0.75 ± 0.13 kg, 0.72 ± 0.13 kg, and 0.77 ± 0.12 kg for calves in the MR, ORS-D,
and ORS-T groups, respectively. There was no effect of treatment on ADG during
this period (P > 0.10; Figure 13b). The mean ADG of calves over the first 56 d
after arrival to the calf-raising facility was 0.84 ± 0.27 kg, 0.88 ± 0.30 kg,
and 0.84 ± 0.17 kg for calves in the MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T groups, respectively.
There was no effect of treatment on long-term ADG (P > 0.10; Figure 13c).
BEHAVIOR OUTCOMES
DURING TRANSPORTATION
There were no treatment effects on the amount of time spent lying down and
number of lying bouts during transportation (P > 0.10). However, the activity
index was lower during transportation in ORS-T compared with MR (Δ = −308.1; P =
0.03, 95% CI: −576.9 to –39.4; Figure 14).
Figure 14Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D, or
ORS-T) on the activity index of surplus dairy calves (n = 87) during
transportation. Calves fed MR were used as the referent group. An “a” denotes a
difference (P < 0.05) in the activity index during transportation of calves fed
ORS-T compared with calves fed MR. Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with
MR (referent). The signifier “a” denotes a difference (P < 0.05) in the activity
index of surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T compared with MR.
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LYING BEHAVIOR FOLLOWING TRANSPORTATION
There were no treatment effects on the amount of time spent lying down and lying
bouts in the days following transportation (d 0 to d 3; P > 0.10; Figure 15a;
Figure 15b). In addition, calves fed ORS-D (Δ = −800.8; P = 0.04, 95% CI:
−1593.4 to −8.1; Figure 15c) and ORS-T (Δ = −820.9; P = 0.04, 95% CI: −1637.8 to
−4.0) had a lower activity index on the day of transportation (d 0) than calves
fed MR.
Figure 15A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction between
treatment fed (MR, ORS-D, or ORS-T) and day relative to transportation (d 0 to d
3) on daily lying time (A), the number of daily lying bouts (B), and daily
activity index (C) that surplus dairy calves (n = 87). Pairwise comparisons were
performed at each time point; ORS-D and ORS-T were compared with MR (referent).
The signifier “a” and “b” denote a difference (P < 0.05) in daily lying time,
the number of daily lying bouts, and the daily activity index of surplus dairy
calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T, respectively, compared with MR. Rest period is
defined as RP in the graphs.
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DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of feeding MR, ORS-D, or
ORS-T to surplus dairy calves during a mid-transportation rest period on
metabolic and clinical health indicators, growth, and activity behavior. Our
study showed that calves fed MR had less fat mobilization and were more active
on the day of transportation than calves fed either ORS-D or ORS-T. There was
also evidence that calves fed MR had a lower number of days with diarrhea and
respiratory disease than calves fed ORS-T. There was no treatment effect on the
incidence of metabolic or respiratory acidosis, growth outcomes, or the time
spent lying down during transportation and in the days following transportation.
In this study, we found that calves fed ORS-D had greater concentrations of NEFA
and BHB immediately upon arrival to the calf-raising facility compared with
calves fed MR. Furthermore, calves fed ORS-T had higher BHB concentrations at
arrival to the calf-raising facility. NEFA, BHB, and glucose are commonly used
as indicators of fat and energy mobilization in transported cattle (reviewed by
Roadknight et al., 2021
* Roadknight N.
* Mansell P.
* Jongman E.
* Courtman N.
* Fisher A.
Invited review: The welfare of young calves transported by road.
J. Dairy Sci. 2021; 104 (33714583): 6343-6357
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-19346
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Google Scholar
). In a similar study, calves fed ORS before loading had higher NEFA and BHB
concentrations compared with calves fed MR after 6 h of transportation, which
agrees with the findings in this study (
Marcato et al., 2020a
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on
physiological status of young veal calves.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32037174): 3505-3520
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17445
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (27)
* Google Scholar
). Also in agreement with this study's findings, calves that were fed 1.5 L of
an ORS and then feed deprived for 19 h had higher NEFA and BHB concentrations on
the day of feed deprivation than calves that had been fed 2.5 L of MR before 19
h of feed deprivation (
Pisoni et al., 2022
* Pisoni L.
* Devant M.
* Blanch M.
* Pastor J.J.
* Marti S.
Simulation of feed restriction and fasting: Effects on animal recovery and
gastrointestinal permeability in unweaned Angus-Holstein calves. 2022.
J. Dairy Sci. 2022; 105 (35086712): 2572-2586
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-20878
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
). Transporting and fasting calves can cause increases in indicators of fat
mobilization in the blood (
Marcato et al., 2020a
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on
physiological status of young veal calves.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32037174): 3505-3520
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17445
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (27)
* Google Scholar
,
Goetz et al., 2023a
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part I. Impact on health and growth.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797186): 2784-2799
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22366
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (3)
* Google Scholar
,
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
;
Pisoni et al., 2022
* Pisoni L.
* Devant M.
* Blanch M.
* Pastor J.J.
* Marti S.
Simulation of feed restriction and fasting: Effects on animal recovery and
gastrointestinal permeability in unweaned Angus-Holstein calves. 2022.
J. Dairy Sci. 2022; 105 (35086712): 2572-2586
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-20878
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
). No differences were found with respect to glucose concentrations, which
aligns with
Marcato et al., 2020a
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on
physiological status of young veal calves.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32037174): 3505-3520
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17445
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (27)
* Google Scholar
who found that dairy calves fed MR or an ORS before 18 h of transportation had
similar glucose concentrations immediately after arrival. Hence, feeding calves
MR rather than an ORS before transportation (
Marcato et al., 2020a
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on
physiological status of young veal calves.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32037174): 3505-3520
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17445
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (27)
* Google Scholar
) and during a mid-transportation rest period could be better at minimizing fat
mobilization in the calves, but may not influence glucose concentrations.
Additionally, future studies should investigate formulating an ORS that provides
a similar glucose concentration as MR.
Very few animals in this study developed respiratory or metabolic acidosis after
transportation and there was no difference between treatment groups. Metabolic
acidosis commonly occurs in calves that are feed deprived for long periods of
time, such as up to 60 h, as found in a study by Parker et al. (2003), and those
that experience diarrhea (
Smith, 2009
* Smith G.W.
Treatment of Calf Diarrhea: Oral Fluid Therapy.
Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 2009; 25 (19174283): 55-72
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvfa.2008.10.006
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (84)
* Google Scholar
). Previous research has also found that transported calves experienced
metabolic acidosis after long durations of transportation (Parker et al., 2003;
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
). We found very few animals developed respiratory or metabolic acidosis after
transportation and there was no difference between the proportion of sampling
times with metabolic or respiratory acidosis. As calves in this study were
sourced from a single dairy farm, it is possible that the calves included in
this study had better fitness for transportation than those included in other
studies (
Goetz et al., 2023a
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part I. Impact on health and growth.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797186): 2784-2799
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22366
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (3)
* Google Scholar
) and therefore less likely to suffer alteration in the respiratory system or
gastrointestinal (GI) tract that could result in acid-base abnormalities.
Based on the results of this study, feeding ORS with a high strong ion
difference (SID) during a mid-transportation period may mitigate the severity of
metabolic acidosis in calves. However, it is unclear why the timing of increase
in blood acid-base parameters was not the same between the 2 ORS treatments.
Additionally, we found that calves fed ORS-D had a higher concentration of both
sodium and chloride in blood than calves fed MR before reloading at the holding
facility. Differences in sodium and chloride concentrations between treatment
groups may be explained by the higher sodium and chloride intake from the ORS-D
compared with MR. Sodium, in particular, plays an important role in maintaining
acid-base balance and correcting metabolic acidosis (
Mohri et al., 2008
* Mohri M.
* Seifi H.A.
* Daraei F.
Effects of short-term supplementation of clinoptilolite in colostrum and milk on
hematology, serum proteins, performance, and health in neonatal dairy calves.
Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008; 46 (18343011): 2112-2117
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2008.02.003
* Crossref
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
;
Smith, 2009
* Smith G.W.
Treatment of Calf Diarrhea: Oral Fluid Therapy.
Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 2009; 25 (19174283): 55-72
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvfa.2008.10.006
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (84)
* Google Scholar
). However, it was found that there were no treatment effects on the incidence
metabolic or respiratory acidosis, therefore further conclusions cannot be
drawn. It is also important to note that both ORS treatments increased blood
acid-base parameters which may have mitigated the occurrence of metabolic or
respiratory acidosis. Further research should be done on feeding calves MR or an
ORS during mid-transportation rest periods and their effect on maintaining
acid-base balance.
There was evidence that calves fed ORS-T have a greater proportion of days with
diarrhea than calves fed MR. Comparatively,
Marcato et al., 2020b
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Transport of Young Veal Calves: Effects of Pre-transport Diet, Transport
Duration, and Type of Vehicle on Health, Behavior, Use of Medicines, and
Slaughter Characteristics.
Front. Vet. Sci. 2020; 7 (33392280)576469
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.576469
* Crossref
* Scopus (11)
* Google Scholar
found that more calves experienced diarrhea within 3 wk of arrival to a veal
farm when fed MR before 6 h and 18 h of transportation than calves fed an ORS.
As results from this study conflict with those of
Marcato et al., 2020b
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Transport of Young Veal Calves: Effects of Pre-transport Diet, Transport
Duration, and Type of Vehicle on Health, Behavior, Use of Medicines, and
Slaughter Characteristics.
Front. Vet. Sci. 2020; 7 (33392280)576469
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.576469
* Crossref
* Scopus (11)
* Google Scholar
, more research is needed to investigate this finding. This study also found
evidence that ORS-T fed calves had a higher proportion of days with respiratory
disease than calves fed MR. There is no evidence to suggest that feeding calves
an ORS has a positive or negative impact on bovine respiratory disease. However,
previous research has found a correlation between feeding MR and immune
function. For example,
Bach et al., 2013
* Bach A.
* Terre M.
* Pinto A.
Performance and health responses of dairy calves offered different milk replacer
allowances.
J. Dairy Sci. 2013; 96 (24119797): 7790-7797
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2013-6909
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (46)
* Google Scholar
found that feeding calves higher volumes of MR decreases relapse of respiratory
disease. In another study, better immune function was found in Jersey calves fed
a higher volume of MR (Ballou, 2012), which may be due to higher amounts of
energy. Although not fully representative of feed deprivation in regard to
transportation, these studies may provide insight into the effect of feeding
calves MR to maintain immune system function during metabolic stress. Further
research is needed to assess the impact of feeding MR or an ORS on diarrhea and
respiratory disease after transportation to calf-raisers.
In this study, calves fed MR had a higher activity index than calves fed ORS-T
and ORS-D during transportation and on the day of transportation. Activity index
is a measure of total overall activeness, including rate of acceleration of the
leg, and total steps (Silper et al., 2015;
Gladden et al., 2020
* Gladden N.E.
* Cuthbert E.
* Ellis K.
* McKeegan D.
Use of a Tri-Axial Accelerometer Can Reliably Detect Play Behaviour in Newborn
Calves.
Animals (Basel). 2020; 10 (32635608)1137
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10071137
* PubMed
* Google Scholar
). Calves with compromised health status, and calves that are pre-clinically
sick have been associated with lower activity indices than healthy calves
(Cantor and Costa, 2022; Cantor et al., 2022), suggesting that low activity
indices in calves may not reflect normal biological function. As calves fed MR
had a higher activity index, but no treatment differences in lying time, our
results suggest that feeding calves MR during a mid-transportation rest period
results in more activity that did not compromise lying time. Furthermore, a high
activity index has been associated with play bouts in calves (
Gladden et al., 2020
* Gladden N.E.
* Cuthbert E.
* Ellis K.
* McKeegan D.
Use of a Tri-Axial Accelerometer Can Reliably Detect Play Behaviour in Newborn
Calves.
Animals (Basel). 2020; 10 (32635608)1137
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10071137
* PubMed
* Google Scholar
). Future research should investigate if calves with a high activity index
during transport are playing or investigating their environment within the
trailer more often than lower index calves.
LIMITATIONS
During the sample size calculations, clustering within cohorts was not accounted
for, which may have resulted in a larger sample size being needed to complete
the study. Therefore, this may have influenced the power to detect statistical
significance between treatment groups for some of the outcomes within this
study. Upon arrival to the holding facility, more calves in the ORS-D group were
dehydrated than in the groups fed MR or ORS-T. Dehydration has been shown to
increase morbidity and mortality after arrival to calf-raisers (
Renaud et al., 2018
* Renaud D.L.
* Duffield T.F.
* LeBlanc S.J.
* Ferguson S.
* Haley D.B.
* Kelton D.F.
Risk factors associated with mortality at a milk-fed veal calf facility: A
prospective cohort study.
J. Dairy Sci. 2018; 101 (29290439): 2659-2668
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13581
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (65)
* Google Scholar
) and may have affected disease and blood gas and acid-base outcomes in these
calves. As such, when conducting analyses, dehydration at baseline was included
as a covariate in several models assessing blood gas and clinical health
outcomes. Furthermore, calves did not have access to free-choice water during
the rest period as the facility was not equipped to provide this. Although
calves in this study were not fasted or limit-fed, water intake during an 8-h
rest period would likely be limited based on previous studies showing that, when
offered after birth, calves consumed an average of 0.75 kg of water per day (
Wickramasinghe et al., 2019
* Wickramasinghe H.K.J.P.
* Kramer A.J.
* Appuhamy J.
Drinking water intake of newborn dairy calves and its effects on feed intake,
growth performance, health status, and nutrient digestibility.
J. Dairy Sci. 2019; 102 (30415859): 377-387
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15579
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (43)
* Google Scholar
). In this study, calves were fed 1 h before being loaded for transportation.
Although 1 h may not be sufficient to complete the digestion process, several
studies have transported calves 1 h after feeding MR with no major apparent
effects on calf health (
Goetz et al., 2023a
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part I. Impact on health and growth.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797186): 2784-2799
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22366
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (3)
* Google Scholar
,
Goetz et al., 2023b
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transporton surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological
variables.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797188): 2800-2818
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22367
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (0)
* Google Scholar
;
Marcato et al., 2020a
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on
physiological status of young veal calves.
J. Dairy Sci. 2020; 103 (32037174): 3505-3520
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17445
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (27)
* Google Scholar
,
Marcato et al., 2020b
* Marcato F.
* van den Brand H.
* Kemp B.
* Engel B.
* Wolthuis-Fillerup M.
* van Reenen K.
Transport of Young Veal Calves: Effects of Pre-transport Diet, Transport
Duration, and Type of Vehicle on Health, Behavior, Use of Medicines, and
Slaughter Characteristics.
Front. Vet. Sci. 2020; 7 (33392280)576469
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.576469
* Crossref
* Scopus (11)
* Google Scholar
). However, future research may be warranted to investigate this theory and
determine the optimal time of feeding before transportation. An additional
limitation is that due to the high mortality rate within the 4th cohort, calves
were group-treated with an antimicrobial which may have affected the proportion
of diarrhea that calves experienced within this group. However, disease (
Svensson et al., 2003
* Svensson C.
* Lundborg K.
* Emanuelson U.
* Olsson S.O.
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* Crossref
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; Pardon et al., 2013) and high mortality (
Winder et al., 2016
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* Kelton D.F.
* Duffield T.F.
Mortality risk factors for calves entering a multi-location white veal farm in
Ontario, Canada.
J. Dairy Sci. 2016; 99 (27720158): 10174-10181
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-11345
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (52)
* Google Scholar
) at veal and calf-raisers is not uncommon. The levels of disease and mortality
represented in this study are similar to those of previous studies (
Scott et al., 2019
* Scott K.
* Kelton D.F.
* Duffield T.F.
* Renaud D.L.
Risk factors identified on arrival associated with morbidity and mortality at a
grain-fed veal facility: A prospective single cohort study.
J. Dairy Sci. 2019; 102 (31378492): 9224-9235
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16829
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Google Scholar
,
Goetz et al., 2023a
* Goetz H.M.
* Creutzinger K.C.
* Kelton D.
* Costa J.H.C.
* Winder C.
* Renaud D.L.
A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and
age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part I. Impact on health and growth.
J. Dairy Sci. 2023; 106 (36797186): 2784-2799
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-22366
* Abstract
* Full Text
* Full Text PDF
* PubMed
* Scopus (3)
* Google Scholar
). Therefore, despite the higher mortality of our 4th cohort, the general
population of surplus calves was still accurately represented. Sex was not
recorded in this study and calves were sourced from a single dairy farm, which
may decrease external validity as calf management often varies between farms and
sexes. Further, as one of the researchers was not blinded to treatment and it is
unlikely that all of the chalk markings on the calves became invisible after 24
h, imperfect blinding may have occurred in this study. Lastly, there were many
outcomes assessed within this paper and, therefore, the chance of finding
statistical significance due to chance could have occurred leading to a type 1
error.
CONCLUSION
Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T had greater fat mobilization than calves fed MR after
the rest period. Additionally, there was evidence that calves fed ORS-T had a
higher proportion of days with diarrhea and respiratory disease in the 14 d
after arrival to the calf-raising facility than calves fed MR. During
transportation, calves fed ORS-T were less active than calves fed MR which was
also found on the day of transportation, where calves fed ORS-T had a lower
activity index than calves fed MR. Calves fed ORS-D also had a lower activity
index. Although feeding an ORS seemed to improve acid-base balance in this
study, our results suggest that feeding MR rather than an ORS during a
mid-transportation rest period could minimize negative lying behavior during
transportation, negative health outcomes, and fat mobilization, but does not
affect growth outcomes after arrival to calf-raisers. Therefore, based on these
results, it appears that feeding calves adequate amounts of MR may be a better
option than ORS during a mid-transportation rest period. Further research should
be done to investigate other strategies to implement before transportation and
during mid-transportation rest periods to improve surplus dairy calf success
after arrival to calf-raising facilities.
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ARTICLE INFO
PUBLICATION HISTORY
Accepted: January 2, 2024
Received: July 14, 2023
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IDENTIFICATION
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2023-23973
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Investigating nutritional strategies during a rest period to improve health,
growth, and behavioral outcomes of transported surplus dairy calves
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FIGURES
* Figure 1A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on (A) NEFA
concentrations, (B) BHB concentrations, and (C) glucose concentrations in
surplus dairy calves (n = 65). Calves fed MR were used as the referent group.
Pairwise comparisons were performed at each time point; ORS-D and ORS-T were
compared with MR (referent). The signifiers “a” and “b” denote a difference
(P < 0.05) in NEFA or BHB concentrations between surplus dairy calves fed
ORS-D or ORS-T, respectively, compared with MR. Rest period is defined as RP
in the graphs.
* Figure 2A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on (A) BE,
(B) HCO3, (C) tCO2, (D) anion gap, (E) pCO2 concentrations, and (F) blood pH
in surplus dairy calves (n = 65). Pairwise comparisons were performed at each
time point; ORS-D and ORS-T were compared with MR (referent). The signifiers
“a” and “b” denote a difference (P < 0.05) in BE, HCO3, tCO2, anion gap, pCO2
concentrations, or blood pH between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T,
respectively, compared with MR. Rest period is defined as RP in the graphs.
* Figure 3A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on (A)
sodium, (B) chloride, (C) and potassium concentrations in surplus dairy
calves (n = 65). Calves fed MR were used as the referent group. Pairwise
comparisons were performed at each time point; ORS-D and ORS-T were compared
with MR (referent). The signifiers “a” denote a difference (P < 0.05) in
sodium concentrations between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D compared with
MR. Rest period is defined as RP in the graphs.
* Figure 4Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the proportion of sampling times with (A) metabolic acidosis or (B)
respiratory acidosis in surplus dairy calves (n = 65). Calves fed ORS-D or
ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent).
* Figure 5A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on
concentration of (A) LDH or (B) creatine kinase (CK) in surplus dairy calves
(n = 65). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR
(referent). Rest period is defined as RP in the graphs.
* Figure 6A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on
concentration of (A) blood urea nitrogen, (B) hematocrit, or (C) hemoglobin
in surplus dairy calves (n = 65). Pairwise comparisons were made at each time
point; calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent).
Rest period is defined as RP in the graphs.
* Figure 7A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on the
proportion of surplus calves with dehydration (n = 128) from unloading at the
holding facility to 72 h after arrival to the calf-raising facility. Calves
fed MR were used as the referent group. Pairwise comparisons were performed
at each time point; ORS-D and ORS-T were compared with MR (referent). The
signifier “a” denotes a difference (P < 0.05) in the proportion of surplus
calves with dehydration between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D compared with
MR. Rest period is defined as RP in the graphs.
* Figure 8A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on the
proportion of surplus calves with a sunken flank (n = 128) from unloading at
the holding facility to 72 h after arrival to the calf-raising facility.
Pairwise comparisons were made at each time point; calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T
were compared with calves fed MR (referent). Rest period is defined as RP in
the graphs.
* Figure 9A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment group (MR, ORS-D, and ORS-T) and sampling time on the
proportion of surplus calves with a fever (n = 128) from unloading at the
holding facility to 14 d after arrival to the calf-raising facility. Pairwise
comparisons were made at each time point; calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were
compared with calves fed MR (referent).
* Figure 10Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the proportion of days with diarrhea in surplus dairy calves (n =
128). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent).
The signifiers “b” denotes evidence for a difference (0.05 < P < 0.1) in the
proportion of days with diarrhea between surplus dairy calves fed ORS-T
compared with MR.
* Figure 11Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the proportion of days with respiratory disease in surplus dairy
calves (n = 128). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR
(referent). The signifier “b” denotes evidence for a difference (0.05 < P <
0.1) in the proportion of days with respiratory disease between surplus dairy
calves fed ORS-T compared with MR.
* Figure 12A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment fed (MR, ORS-D, or ORS-T) and body weight at each sampling
point (kg) in surplus dairy calves (n = 128). Calves fed MR were used as the
referent group. Pairwise comparisons were made at each time point; calves fed
ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with calves fed MR (referent). Rest period is
defined as RP in the graphs.
* Figure 13Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
ORS-T) on the percentage of body weight lost during transportation (A),
average daily gain over 14 d (B), and average daily gain over 8 weeks (C) in
surplus dairy calves (n = 128). Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were compared with
calves fed MR (referent).
* Figure 14Box and whisker plot showing the effect of treatment fed (MR, ORS-D,
or ORS-T) on the activity index of surplus dairy calves (n = 87) during
transportation. Calves fed MR were used as the referent group. An “a” denotes
a difference (P < 0.05) in the activity index during transportation of calves
fed ORS-T compared with calves fed MR. Calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T were
compared with MR (referent). The signifier “a” denotes a difference (P <
0.05) in the activity index of surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T
compared with MR.
* Figure 15A margins plot of the predicted probability of the interaction
between treatment fed (MR, ORS-D, or ORS-T) and day relative to
transportation (d 0 to d 3) on daily lying time (A), the number of daily
lying bouts (B), and daily activity index (C) that surplus dairy calves (n =
87). Pairwise comparisons were performed at each time point; ORS-D and ORS-T
were compared with MR (referent). The signifier “a” and “b” denote a
difference (P < 0.05) in daily lying time, the number of daily lying bouts,
and the daily activity index of surplus dairy calves fed ORS-D or ORS-T,
respectively, compared with MR. Rest period is defined as RP in the graphs.
TABLES
* Table 1Comparison of Composition of Treatments
* Table 2:Description of the models used to analyze health and behavior
outcomes
* Table 3:Mean and standard deviation of important baseline variables, IgG
concentration and body weight, of each treatment group
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