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CONTENTS
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* (Top)
* 1Early life
Toggle Early life subsection
* 1.1Early life
* 1.2The King's School
* 1.3University of Cambridge
* 2Work
Toggle Work subsection
* 2.1Calculus
* 2.2Optics
* 2.3Gravity
* 3Later life
Toggle Later life subsection
* 3.1Royal Mint
* 3.2Knighthood
* 3.3Death
* 4Personality
* 5Theology
Toggle Theology subsection
* 5.1Religious views
* 5.2Religious thought
* 5.3The occult
* 6Alchemy
* 7Legacy
Toggle Legacy subsection
* 7.1Fame
* 7.2Apple incident
* 7.3Commemorations
* 8The Enlightenment
* 9Works
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* 9.1Published in his lifetime
* 9.2Published posthumously
* 10See also
* 11References
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* 11.1Notes
* 11.2Citations
* 11.3Bibliography
* 12Further reading
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* 12.1Primary
* 12.2Alchemy
* 12.3Religion
* 12.4Science
* 13External links
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* 13.1Writings by Newton
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ISAAC NEWTON
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
English mathematician and physicist (1642–1727)
This article is about the scientist and mathematician. For the American
agriculturalist, see Isaac Newton (agriculturalist).
Sir
Isaac Newton
FRS
Portrait of Newton at 46 by Godfrey Kneller, 1689
Born(1643-01-04)4 January 1643 [O.S. 25 December 1642][a]
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England
Died31 March 1727(1727-03-31) (aged 84) [O.S. 20 March 1726][a]
Kensington, Middlesex, Great Britain
Resting placeWestminster AbbeyEducationTrinity College, Cambridge (M.A.,
1668)[1]Known for
show
List
* Newtonian mechanics
* universal gravitation
* calculus
* Newton's laws of motion
* optics
* binomial series
* Principia
* Newton's method
* Newton's law of cooling
* Newton's identities
* Newton's metal
* Newton line
* Newton–Gauss line
* Newtonian fluid
* Newton's rings
* Standing on the shoulders of giants
* List of all other works and concepts
Awards
* FRS (1672)[2]
* Knight Bachelor (1705)
Scientific careerFields
* Physics
* natural philosophy
* alchemy
* theology
* mathematics
* astronomy
* economics
Institutions
* University of Cambridge
* Royal Society
* Royal Mint
Academic advisors
* Isaac Barrow[3]
* Benjamin Pulleyn[4][5]
Notable students
* Roger Cotes
* William Whiston
Influences
* Aristotle
* Boyle[6]
* Descartes
* Galileo
* Huygens[7][8]
* Kepler
* Locke[9][10]
* Maimonides[11]
* Street[12]
Influenced
show
List
* show
In the natural sciences and mathematics
* * Boole
* Einstein
* Euler
* Clairaut
* Châtelet
* 's Gravesande
* Gregory
* Hamilton
* Jurin
* Laplace
* Maxwell
* Maclaurin
* Routh
* Smith
* Newtonianism
show
In the humanities
* * Bentley
* Berkeley
* Diderot
* Godwin
* Hartley
* Hume
* Jefferson
* Kant
* Keynes
* Locke[9][10]
* Saint-Simon[13]
* Verri[14]
* Voltaire[15]
* Enlightenment philosophy in general
Member of Parliament
for the University of CambridgeIn office
1689–1690Preceded byRobert BradySucceeded byEdward FinchIn office
1701–1702Preceded byAnthony HammondSucceeded byArthur Annesley, 5th Earl of
Anglesey12th President of the Royal SocietyIn office
1703–1727Preceded byJohn SomersSucceeded byHans SloaneMaster of the MintIn
office
1699–17271696–1699Warden of the MintPreceded byThomas NealeSucceeded byJohn
Conduitt2nd Lucasian Professor of MathematicsIn office
1669–1702Preceded byIsaac BarrowSucceeded byWilliam Whiston Personal
detailsPolitical partyWhig
Signature
Sir Isaac Newton FRS (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27)[a] was an English
mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author who was
described in his time as a natural philosopher. He was a key figure in the
Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment that followed. His pioneering book
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy), first published in 1687, consolidated many of his previous results
and established classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to
optics, and shares credit with German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
for developing infinitesimal calculus.
In the Principia, Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation
that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was
superseded by the theory of relativity. Newton used his mathematical description
of gravity to derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion, account for tides, the
trajectories of comets, the precession of the equinoxes and other phenomena,
eradicating doubt about the Solar System's heliocentricity. He demonstrated that
the motion of objects on Earth and celestial bodies could be accounted for by
the same principles. Newton's inference that the Earth is an oblate spheroid was
later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and
others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian
mechanics over earlier systems.
Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a
sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism separates
white light into the colours of the visible spectrum. His work on light was
collected in his highly influential book Opticks, published in 1704. He also
formulated an empirical law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation
of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In
addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the
study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer
exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and
classified most of the cubic plane curves.
Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of
Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox
Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. He refused to take
holy orders in the Church of England, unlike most members of the Cambridge
faculty of the day. Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton
dedicated much of his time to the study of alchemy and biblical chronology, but
most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death.
Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms
as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–1690 and
1701–1702. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and spent the last three
decades of his life in London, serving as Warden (1696–1699) and Master
(1699–1727) of the Royal Mint, as well as president of the Royal Society
(1703–1727).
EARLY LIFE
Main article: Early life of Isaac Newton
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EARLY LIFE
Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar in use in England at the
time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (NS 4 January 1643[a]), "an hour or two
after midnight",[17] at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a
hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had
died three months before. Born prematurely, Newton was a small child; his mother
Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug.[18]
When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new
husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his
maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough (née Blythe). Newton disliked his
stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as
revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19:
"Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over
them."[19] Newton's mother had three children (Mary, Benjamin, and Hannah) from
her second marriage.[20]
THE KING'S SCHOOL
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The
King's School in Grantham, which taught Latin and Ancient Greek and probably
imparted a significant foundation of mathematics.[21] He was removed from school
and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659. His mother, widowed
for the second time, attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated.[22]
Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back
to school. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully,
he became the top-ranked student,[23] distinguishing himself mainly by building
sundials and models of windmills.[24]
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
In June 1661, Newton was admitted to Trinity College at the University of
Cambridge. His uncle Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge,
recommended him to the university. At Cambridge, Newton started as a subsizar,
paying his way by performing valet duties until he was awarded a scholarship in
1664, which covered his university costs for four more years until the
completion of his MA.[25] At the time, Cambridge's teachings were based on those
of Aristotle, whom Newton read along with then more modern philosophers,
including Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo Galilei and Thomas Street.
He set down in his notebook a series of "Quaestiones" about mechanical
philosophy as he found it. In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial
theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus.
Soon after Newton obtained his BA degree at Cambridge in August 1665, the
university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although
he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,[26] Newton's private studies
at his home in Woolsthorpe over the next two years saw the development of his
theories on calculus,[27] optics, and the law of gravitation.
In April 1667, Newton returned to the University of Cambridge, and in October he
was elected as a fellow of Trinity.[28][29] Fellows were required to be ordained
as priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years and an
assertion of conformity to the Church of England was sufficient. However, by
1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood
in the way.[30] Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of special
permission from Charles II.
His academic work impressed the Lucasian professor Isaac Barrow, who was anxious
to develop his own religious and administrative potential (he became master of
Trinity College two years later); in 1669, Newton succeeded him, only one year
after receiving his MA. Newton was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)
in 1672.[2]
WORK
CALCULUS
Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics
then studied".[31] His work on the subject, usually referred to as fluxions or
calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's
mathematical papers.[32] His work De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum
infinitas, sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by
Barrow in a letter sent to Collins that August as the work "of an extraordinary
genius and proficiency in these things".[33]
Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the
development of calculus (the Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy). Most modern
historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently,
although with very different mathematical notations. Leibniz's notation and
"differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations,
were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also
by British mathematicians.[citation needed]
His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of
the ratios of vanishingly small quantities: in the Principia itself, Newton gave
demonstration of this under the name of "the method of first and last
ratios"[34] and explained why he put his expositions in this form,[35] remarking
also that "hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of
indivisibles."[36]
Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and
application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times[37] and in Newton's
time "nearly all of it is of this calculus."[38] His use of methods involving
"one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu
corporum in gyrum of 1684[39] and in his papers on motion "during the two
decades preceding 1684".[40]
Newton in 1702 by Godfrey Kneller
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy
and criticism.[41] He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de
Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's
Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz.[42] In 1693, the relationship between
Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed.[43]
Starting in 1699, other members[who?] of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of
plagiarism.[44] The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal
Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and
labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's
concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred
the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.[45]
Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for
any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified
cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made
substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first
to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions
to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by
logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula) and was the first to use
power series with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on
infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.[46]
When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the "College of the Holy and
Undivided Trinity" in 1667, he made the commitment that "I will either set
Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time
prescribed by these statutes [7 years] arrives, or I will resign from the
college."[47] Up until this point he had not thought much about religion and had
twice signed his agreement to the thirty-nine articles, the basis of Church of
England doctrine.
He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669, on Barrow's
recommendation. During that time, any Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford
was required to take holy orders and become an ordained Anglican priest.
However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be
active in the church – presumably,[weasel words] so as to have more time for
science. Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination
requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this
argument; thus, a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican
orthodoxy was averted.[48]
OPTICS
Replica of Newton's second reflecting telescope, which he presented to the Royal
Society in 1672[49]
In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the
position of minimum deviation is oblong, even when the light ray entering the
prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by
different angles.[50][51] This led him to conclude that colour is a property
intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate.
From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.[52] During this period he
investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured image
produced by a prism, which he named a spectrum, could be recomposed into white
light by a lens and a second prism.[53] Modern scholarship has revealed that
Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular
alchemy.[54]
He showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a
coloured beam and shining it on various objects, and that regardless of whether
reflected, scattered, or transmitted, the light remains the same colour. Thus,
he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with
already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves.
This is known as Newton's theory of colour.[55]
Illustration of a dispersive prism separating white light into the colours of
the spectrum, as discovered by Newton
From this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would
suffer from the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration). As a
proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors
instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem.[56][57] Building the
design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a
Newtonian telescope,[57] involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror
material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom
composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge
the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668,[58] he was able to
produce this first reflecting telescope. It was about eight inches long and it
gave a clearer and larger image. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a
demonstration of his reflecting telescope.[59] Their interest encouraged him to
publish his notes, Of Colours,[60] which he later expanded into the work
Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so
offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief
exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's
correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from
Newton to Royal Society transactions,[61] which had the effect of stimulating
Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would
result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the
radius vector. But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's
death.[62]
Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Newton to William Briggs, commenting on Briggs'
A New Theory of Vision
Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were
refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to
explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films
(Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that
disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, later
physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the
interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum
mechanics, photons, and the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor
resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.
In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to
transmit forces between particles. The contact with the Cambridge Platonist
philosopher Henry More revived his interest in alchemy.[63] He replaced the
ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion
between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings
on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was
the last of the magicians."[64] Newton's contributions to science cannot be
isolated from his interest in alchemy.[63] This was at a time when there was no
clear distinction between alchemy and science, and had he not relied on the
occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have
developed his theory of gravity.
In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory
of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that
ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a
kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible
into one another, ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the
Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"[65] Newton also constructed a
primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe.[66]
In his book Opticks, Newton was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a
beam expander, and also the use of multiple-prism arrays.[67] Some 278 years
after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam expanders became central to the
development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers. Also, the use of these prismatic
beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory.[67]
Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. Young and Fresnel discarded
Newton's particle theory in favour of Huygens' wave theory to show that colour
is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also slowly came to
realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics.
The German poet and scientist, Goethe, could not shake the Newtonian foundation
but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour, ... Newton had committed
himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He,
therefore, thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must forever remain
imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible. This inference was
proved by Dollond to be wrong."[68]
Engraving of Portrait of Newton by John Vanderbank
GRAVITY
Further information: Writing of Principia Mathematica
See also: Cubic plane curve
Newton's own copy of Principia with Newton's hand-written corrections for the
second edition, now housed at Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge
In 1679, Newton returned to his work on celestial mechanics by considering
gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's
laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of
letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal
Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit
contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.[61] Newton's
reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the
appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with
John Flamsteed.[69] After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof
that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal
force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. Newton
communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu
corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into
the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.[70] This tract contained the
nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia.
The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help
from Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion.
Together, these laws describe the relationship between any object, the forces
acting upon it and the resulting motion, laying the foundation for classical
mechanics. They contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution
which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of
these advances continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies
in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect
that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal
gravitation.[71]
In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical
analysis using 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination
(based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of
Earth's spheroidal figure, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a
result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness,
initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the
Moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much
more.[71] Newton's biographer David Brewster reported that the complexity of
applying his theory of gravity to the motion of the moon was so great it
affected Newton's health: "[H]e was deprived of his appetite and sleep" during
his work on the problem in 1692-3, and told the astronomer John Machin that "his
head never ached but when he was studying the subject". According to Brewster
Edmund Halley also told John Conduitt that when pressed to complete his analysis
Newton "always replied that it made his head ache, and kept him awake so often,
that he would think of it no more". [Emphasis in original][72]
Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System—developed in a
somewhat modern way because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the
"deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System.[73] For
Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could
be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth,
the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this
centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line"
(Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the
centre, wherever it was, was at rest).[74]
Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to
him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science.[75] Later,
in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such
criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the
phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so
far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame
hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used
what became his famous expression "hypotheses non-fingo"[76]).
With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[77] He acquired a
circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de
Duillier.[78]
In 1710, Newton found 72 of the 78 "species" of cubic curves and categorised
them into four types.[79] In 1717, and probably with Newton's help, James
Stirling proved that every cubic was one of these four types. Newton also
claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of
them, and this was proved in 1731, four years after his death.[80]
LATER LIFE
ROYAL MINT
Main article: Later life of Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton in old age in 1712, portrait by Sir James Thornhill
In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal
and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke
in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5:7—the Johannine Comma—and its
fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished
until 1785.[81]
Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University
in 1689 and 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to
complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be
closed.[82] He was, however, noted by Cambridge diarist Abraham de la Pryme to
have rebuked students who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was
haunted.[83]
Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696,
a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st
Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's
great recoining, trod on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower, and
secured the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond
Halley. Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon the death
of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his
life.[84][85] These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took
them seriously. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercised his
authority to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters.
As Warden, and afterwards as Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that
20 percent of the coins taken in during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were
counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon being
hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convicting even the most flagrant
criminals could be extremely difficult, but Newton proved equal to the task.[86]
Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence
himself.[87] For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the
branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of
authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home
counties. A draft letter regarding the matter is included in Newton's personal
first edition of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which he must have
been amending at the time.[88] Then he conducted more than
100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698
and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.[89]
Coat of arms of the Newton family of Great Gonerby, Lincolnshire, afterwards
used by Sir Isaac[90]
Newton was made president of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the
French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made
an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing
Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his
studies.[91]
KNIGHTHOOD
In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity
College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political
considerations connected with the parliamentary election in May 1705, rather
than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the
Mint.[92] Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Francis
Bacon.[93]
As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords
Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between
gold coins and silver coins was changed by royal proclamation on 22 December
1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver
shillings.[94] This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins
were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively
moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard. It is a
matter of debate as to whether he intended to do this or not.[95] It has been
argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his
alchemical work.[96]
Newton was invested in the South Sea Company and lost some £20,000 (£4.4 million
in 2020[97]) when it collapsed in around 1720.[98]
Toward the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near
Winchester, with his niece and her husband, until his death.[99] His half-niece,
Catherine Barton,[100] served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on
Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle",[101] according to his
letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox.
DEATH
Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 (OS 20 March 1726; NS 31
March 1727).[a] He was given a ceremonial funeral, attended by nobles,
scientists, and philosophers, and was buried in Westminster Abbey among kings
and queens. He is also the first scientist to be buried in the abbey.[102]
Voltaire may have been present at his funeral.[103] A bachelor, he had divested
much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate.[104]
His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton.[105]
After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury,
probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain
Newton's eccentricity in late life.[104]
PERSONALITY
Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,[b] Newton never married. The
French writer and philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of
Newton's funeral, said that he "was never sensible to any passion, was not
subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women—a
circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him
in his last moments".[107] There exists a widespread belief that Newton died a
virgin, and writers as diverse as mathematician Charles Hutton,[108] economist
John Maynard Keynes,[109] and physicist Carl Sagan each have commented on
it.[110]
Newton had a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de
Duillier, who he met in London around 1689[78]—some of their correspondence has
survived.[111][112] Their relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in
1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown,[113] which
included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John
Locke. His note to the latter included the charge that Locke "endeavoured to
embroil me with woemen".[114]
Newton was relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a letter to
Robert Hooke in February 1676, "If I have seen further it is by standing on the
shoulders of giants."[115] Two writers think that the sentence, written at a
time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an
oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather
than—or in addition to—a statement of modesty.[116][117] On the other hand, the
widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants, published among
others by seventeenth-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the
University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum
(1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther
of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather
than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.
In a later memoir, Newton wrote, "I do not know what I may appear to the world,
but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and
diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell
than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before
me."[118]
In 2015, Steven Weinberg, a Nobel laureate in physics, called Newton "a nasty
antagonist" and "a bad man to have as an enemy",[119] noting Newton's attitude
towards Robert Hooke and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
It has been suggested by some scientists and clinicians that, based on these and
other traits along with his profound power of concentration and ability to
perceive the environment in radically original ways, that Newton may have had an
undiagnosed form of high-functioning autism, now properly known as ASD1 within
autism spectrum; formerly known as Asperger syndrome.[120][121][122]
THEOLOGY
RELIGIOUS VIEWS
Main article: Religious views of Isaac Newton
Although born into an Anglican family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian
faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by
mainstream Christianity,[123] with one historian labelling him a heretic.[124]
By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which
he showed to no one and which have only recently[when?] been examined. They
demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early Church writings and show that in the
conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed, he took the side
of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity. Newton
"recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate
to the Father who created him."[125] He was especially interested in prophecy,
but for him, "the great apostasy was trinitarianism."[126]
Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted
the holder from the ordination requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he
received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future
holders of the Lucasian chair.[127]
In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental
sin.[128] In 1999, historian Stephen D. Snobelen wrote, "Isaac Newton was a
heretic. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which
the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that
scholars are still unraveling his personal beliefs."[124] Snobelen concludes
that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly
read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an
anti-trinitarian.[124]
Most scholars conclude that was Isaac Newton was an Arian.
Newton (1795, detail) by William Blake. Newton is depicted critically as a
"divine geometer".[129]
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known
discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere
machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "So then gravity may put the
planets into motion, but without the Divine Power it could never put them into
such a circulating motion, as they have about the sun".[130]
Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early
Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism,
most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture and
Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John.[131]
He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with
one traditionally accepted date.[132]
He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism
implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. The ordered and dynamically informed
Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In
his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye
upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a
Deity".[133] He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a
wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of
choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be
required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.[134] For
this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time
to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient
foresight to make it a perpetual motion."[135]
Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a
famous correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work Celestial
Mechanics had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not require
periodic divine intervention.[136] The contrast between Laplace's mechanistic
worldview and Newton's one is the most strident considering the famous answer
which the French scientist gave Napoleon, who had criticised him for the absence
of the Creator in the Mécanique céleste: "Sire, j'ai pu me passer de cette
hypothèse" ("Sir, I didn't need this hypothesis").[137]
Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the Trinity. His
first biographer, David Brewster, who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted
Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support the Trinity,
but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such.[138] In the twentieth
century, encrypted manuscripts written by Newton and bought by John Maynard
Keynes (among others) were deciphered[64] and it became known that Newton did
indeed reject Trinitarianism.[124]
RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
Newton and Robert Boyle's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by
rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and
enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as
dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.[139] The clarity and simplicity of
science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives
of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,[140] and at the same
time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate
the possibility of a "Natural Religion".
The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical
elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical
conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through
mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in
popularising them.[141]
THE OCCULT
See also: Isaac Newton's occult studies and eschatology
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 (never intended to be published), he mentions
the date of 2060, but it is not given as a date for the end of days. It has been
falsely reported as a prediction. The passage is clear when the date is read in
context. He was against date setting for the end of days, concerned that this
would put Christianity into disrepute.[142]
> So then the time times & half a time [sic] are 42 months or 1260 days or three
> years & an half, recconing twelve months to a year & 30 days to a month as was
> done in the Calender [sic] of the primitive year. And the days of short lived
> Beasts being put for the years of [long-]lived kingdoms the period of 1260
> days, if dated from the complete conquest of the three kings A.C. 800, will
> end 2060. It may end later, but I see no reason for its ending sooner.[143]
> This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a
> stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the
> time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as
> often as their predictions fail. Christ comes as a thief in the night, and it
> is not for us to know the times and seasons which God hath put into his own
> breast.[142]
ALCHEMY
In the character of Morton Opperly in "Poor Superman" (1951), speculative
fiction author Fritz Leiber says of Newton, "Everyone knows Newton as the great
scientist. Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy,
looking for the philosopher's stone. That was the pebble by the seashore he
really wanted to find."[144]
Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one
million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of
other manuscripts, with his own annotations.[105] Alchemical texts mix artisanal
knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of
wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets.[145] Some of the
content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the
church.[105]
In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge
University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth.
In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's.[146] The
collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000.[147] John Maynard
Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection
at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's
collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge
University in 1946.[105][146][148]
All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a
project undertaken by Indiana University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"[149]
and summarised in a book.[150][151]
> Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of
> gravitational attraction, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture
> of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there
> is another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm
> of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life, although he kept it
> largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's
> involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in
> seventeenth-century England, "chymistry."[149]
Charles Coulston Gillispie disputes that Newton ever practised alchemy, saying
that "his chemistry was in the spirit of Boyle's corpuscular philosophy."[152]
In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on Jan Baptist van
Helmont's book on plague, De Peste,[153] were being auctioned online by Bonhams.
Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting
himself from London's 1665–1666 infection, is the most substantial written
statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams. As
far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that "the best is a toad
suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up
earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after
died. Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges
and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the
poison".[154]
LEGACY
See also: Isaac Newton in popular culture
FAME
Newton's tomb monument in Westminster Abbey by Rysbrack
The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange said that Newton was the greatest genius
who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we
cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[155] English
poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous epitaph:
> Nature, and Nature's laws lay hid in night.
> God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.
But this was not allowed to be inscribed in the monument. The epitaph in the
monument is as follows:[156]
> H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, /
> Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi
> facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, /
> Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus
> erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax,
> fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij
> Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque
> exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX.
> MAR. MDCCXXVI,
which can be translated as follows:[156]
> Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine,
> and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and
> figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the
> dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously
> imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and
> faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he
> vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed
> the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has
> existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th
> December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726.
In a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by
Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or
Albert Einstein, the members deemed Newton to have made the greater overall
contribution.[157] In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading
physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the
runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site
PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.[158] Einstein kept a picture of Newton
on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk
Maxwell.[159]
The SI derived unit of force is named the newton in his honour.
Woolsthorpe Manor is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being
his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories
regarding the refraction of light".[160]
In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730[161]
(US$3,633) in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring.[162] Guinness
World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth, which would value
approximately £25,000 (US$35,700) in late 2001.[162] Who bought it and who
currently has it has not been disclosed.
APPLE INCIDENT
Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree at (from top to bottom): Trinity
College, Cambridge, the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, and the Instituto
Balseiro library garden in Argentina
Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory
of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.[163][164] The story
is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by
Catherine Barton, Newton's niece, to Voltaire.[165] Voltaire then wrote in his
Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the
first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a
tree."[166][167]
Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not
arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment,[168] acquaintances of
Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made
available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the
apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded
in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in
Kensington on 15 April 1726:[169][170][171]
> we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only
> he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same
> situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind.
> "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought
> he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a
> comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly
> to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there
> must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the
> matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the
> earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if
> matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore
> the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."
John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's
niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:[172]
> In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in
> Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his
> thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the
> ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power
> must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon
> said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain
> her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of
> that supposition.
A wood engraving of Newton's famous steps under the apple tree
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with
the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to
the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged
theory.[173] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it
extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to
its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of
the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good
agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions,
and hence named it "universal gravitation".
Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The
King's School, Grantham claims that the tree was purchased by the school,
uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff
of the (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that
a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of
the original tree[174] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity
College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The
National Fruit Collection at Brogdale in Kent[175] can supply grafts from their
tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking
variety.[176]
COMMEMORATIONS
Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History
Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the
entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed
by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with
design by the architect William Kent.[177] The monument features a figure of
Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of
his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical
design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the
Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using
instruments such as a telescope and prism.[178] The Latin inscription on the
base translates as:
> Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine,
> and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and
> figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the
> dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously
> imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and
> faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he
> vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed
> the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has
> existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25
> December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.
>
> —Translation from G. L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's
> Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703–704.[178]
From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared
on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be
issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes
holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar
System.[179]
A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the
Oxford University Museum of Natural History. A large bronze statue, Newton,
after William Blake, by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired by Blake's
etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London. A bronze statue
of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of Grantham where he went to school,
prominently standing in front of Grantham Guildhall.
The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I listed
building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he
discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of
light".[160]
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific
predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors
of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every
physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history
and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.[180]
It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of
the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the Principia was a turning point
in the Scientific Revolution and started the Enlightenment. It was Newton's
conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws
that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.[181] Locke and Voltaire
applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic
rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied natural conceptions of psychology
and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current
social order for trying to fit history into natural models of progress. Monboddo
and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually
rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.
WORKS
See also: Writing of Principia Mathematica
PUBLISHED IN HIS LIFETIME
* De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (1669, published
1711)[182]
* Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c.
1671–75)[183]
* De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)[184]
* Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)[185]
* Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa (1701)[186]
* Opticks (1704)[187]
* Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–1725)[188]
* Arithmetica Universalis (1707)[188]
PUBLISHED POSTHUMOUSLY
* De mundi systemate (The System of the World) (1728)[188]
* Optical Lectures (1728)[188]
* The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728)[188]
* Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)[188]
* Method of Fluxions (1671, published 1736)[189]
* An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)[188]
SEE ALSO
* Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, a book by Voltaire
* List of multiple discoveries: seventeenth century
* List of things named after Isaac Newton
* List of presidents of the Royal Society
REFERENCES
NOTES
1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use
in Europe: the Julian ("Old Style") calendar in Protestant and Orthodox
regions, including Britain; and the Gregorian ("New Style") calendar in
Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days
ahead of Julian dates; thus, his birth is recorded as taking place on 25
December 1642 Old Style, but it can be converted to a New Style (modern)
date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the
calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, he died in the period
after the start of the New Style year on 1 January but before that of the
Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726,
according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to
1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March
1727.[16][self-published source?]
2. ^ This claim was made by William Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton
written to Richard Mead. Charles Hutton, who in the late eighteenth century
collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declared that there "do
not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an
inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional
indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general."[106]
CITATIONS
1. ^ Kevin C. Knox, Richard Noakes (eds.), From Newton to Hawking: A History
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2. ^ Jump up to: a b "Fellows of the Royal Society". London: Royal Society.
Archived from the original on 16 March 2015.
3. ^ Feingold, Mordechai. Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677) Archived 29 January 2013
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February 2009; explained further in Feingold, Mordechai (1993). "Newton,
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4. ^ "Dictionary of Scientific Biography". Notes, No. 4. Archived from the
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5. ^ Gjertsen 1986, p. [page needed]
6. ^ Newton, Isaac (February 1678). Philosophical tract from Mr Isaac Newton.
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Retrieved 1 October 2021. But because I am indebted to you & yesterday met
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7. ^ I. Bernard Cohen; George E. Smith (25 April 2002). The Cambridge
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12. ^ See e.g. D. T. Whiteside, Before the Principia, in Journal for the
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23. ^ White 1997, p. 22.
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years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely.
133. ^ Newton to Richard Bentley 10 December 1692, in Turnbull et al.
(1959–77), vol 3, p. 233.
134. ^ Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31.
135. ^ H.G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, Manchester
University Press, 1998, p. 11.
136. ^ Tyson, Neil Degrasse (1 November 2005). "The Perimeter of Ignorance".
Natural History Magazine. Archived from the original on 6 September 2018.
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137. ^ Dijksterhuis, E. J. The Mechanization of the World Picture, IV 329–330,
Oxford University Press, 1961. The author's final comment on this episode
is:"The mechanization of the world picture led with irresistible coherence
to the conception of God as a sort of 'retired engineer', and from here to
God's complete elimination it took just one more step".
138. ^ Brewster states that Newton was never known as an Arian during his
lifetime, it was William Whiston, an Arian, who first argued that "Sir
Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists, as well as for the Eusebians
or Arians, that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in
the Revelations," while others like Hopton Haynes (a Mint employee and
Humanitarian), "mentioned to Richard Baron, that Newton held the same
doctrine as himself". David Brewster. Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and
Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton. p. 268.
139. ^ Jacob, Margaret C. (1976). The Newtonians and the English Revolution:
1689–1720. Cornell University Press. pp. 37, 44. ISBN 978-0-85527-066-7.
140. ^ Westfall, Richard S. (1958). Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century
England. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-208-00843-5.
141. ^ Haakonssen, Knud (1996). "The Enlightenment, politics and providence:
some Scottish and English comparisons". In Martin Fitzpatrick (ed.).
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Galaxy magazine, July 1951; Variously titled Appointment in Tomorrow; in
some reprints of Leiber's story the sentence 'That was the pebble..' is
replaced by 'Which Newton did the world need then?'
145. ^ Meyer, Michal (2014). "Gold, secrecy and prestige". Chemical Heritage
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148. ^ Dry, Sarah (2014). The Newton papers : the strange and true odyssey of
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155. ^ Fred L. Wilson, History of Science: Newton citing: Delambre, M. "Notice
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157. ^ "Newton beats Einstein in polls of Royal Society scientists and the
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(1062362)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
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2002. ISBN 978-0-553-58378-6. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022.
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163. ^ White 1997, p. 86.
164. ^ Numbers 2015, pp. 48–56.
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166. ^ Voltaire (1727). An Essay upon the Civil Wars of France, extracted from
curious Manuscripts and also upon the Epick Poetry of the European
Nations, from Homer down to Milton. London, England: Samuel Jallasson.
p. 104. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 14 June
2021. From p. 104: 'In the like Manner Pythagoras ow'd the Invention of
Musik to the noise of the Hammer of a Blacksmith. And thus in our Days Sir
Isaak Newton walking in his Garden had the first Thought of his System of
Gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a Tree.'
167. ^ Voltaire (1786) heard the story of Newton and the apple tree from
Newton's niece, Catherine Conduit (née Barton) (1679–1740): Voltaire
(1786). Oeuvres completes de Voltaire [The complete works of Voltaire] (in
French). Vol. 31. Basel, Switzerland: Jean-Jacques Tourneisen. p. 175.
Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021. From p.
175: "Un jour en l'année 1666, Newton retiré à la campagne, et voyant
tomber des fruits d'un arbre, à ce que m'a conté sa nièce, (Mme Conduit)
se laissa aller à une méditation profonde sur la cause qui entraine ainsi
tous les corps dans une ligne, qui, si elle était prolongée, passerait à
peu près par le centre de la terre." (One day in the year 1666 Newton
withdrew to the country, and seeing the fruits of a tree fall, according
to what his niece (Madame Conduit) told me, he entered into a deep
meditation on the cause that draws all bodies in a [straight] line, which,
if it were extended, would pass very near to the center of the Earth.)
168. ^ Berkun, Scott (2010). The Myths of Innovation. O'Reilly Media, Inc.
p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4493-8962-8.
169. ^ "Newton's apple: The real story". New Scientist. 18 January 2010.
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170. ^ Hamblyn, Richard (2011). "Newtonian Apples: William Stukeley". The Art
of Science. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4472-0415-2.
171. ^ "Revised Memoir of Newton (Normalized Version)". The Newton Project.
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172. ^ Conduitt, John. "Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at
Cambridge". Newtonproject. Imperial College London. Archived from the
original on 7 November 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2006.
173. ^ I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. The Cambridge Companion to
Newton (2002) p. 6
174. ^ Alberto A. Martinez Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches,
Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths, p. 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press,
2011); ISBN 978-0-8229-4407-2
175. ^ "Brogdale – Home of the National Fruit Collection". Brogdale.org.
Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
176. ^ "From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree". Retrieved 10
January 2009.[permanent dead link] Alternate Page Archived 5 July 2022 at
the Wayback Machine Retrieved 5 July 2022.
177. ^ 'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p13: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson;
1966
178. ^ Jump up to: a b "Famous People & the Abbey: Sir Isaac Newton".
Westminster Abbey. Archived from the original on 16 October 2009.
Retrieved 13 November 2009.
179. ^ "Withdrawn banknotes reference guide". Bank of England. Archived from
the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2009.
180. ^ Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World.
p. 2.
181. ^ "Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the
success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an
ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement
in the eighteenth century" by John Gribbin, Science: A History 1543–2001
(2002), p. 241 ISBN 978-0-7139-9503-9
182. ^ Anders Hald 2003 – A history of probability and statistics and their
applications before 1750 – 586 pages Volume 501 of Wiley series in
probability and statistics Wiley-IEEE, 2003 Archived 2 June 2022 at the
Wayback Machine Retrieved 27 January 2012 ISBN 0-471-47129-1
183. ^ "Natures obvious laws & processes in vegetation – Introduction". The
Chymistry of Isaac Newton. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021.
Retrieved 17 January 2021. Transcribed and online at Indiana University.
184. ^ Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1974). Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton,
1684–1691. 6. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–91. Archived 10 June 2016
at the Wayback Machine
185. ^ "Museum of London exhibit including facsimile of title page from John
Flamsteed's copy of 1687 edition of Newton's Principia".
Museumoflondon.org.uk. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012.
Retrieved 16 March 2012.
186. ^ Published anonymously as "Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones &
signa." in Philosophical Transactions, 1701, 824 Archived 21 January 2020
at the Wayback Machine–829; ed. Joannes Nichols, Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae
exstant omnia, vol. 4 (1782), 403 Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback
Machine–407. Mark P. Silverman, A Universe of Atoms, An Atom in the
Universe, Springer, 2002, p. 49. Archived 24 June 2016 at the Wayback
Machine
187. ^ Newton, Isaac (1704). Opticks or, a Treatise of the reflexions,
refractions, inflexions and colours of light. Also two treatises of the
species and magnitude of curvilinear figures. Sam. Smith. and Benj.
Walford. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 17
March 2018.
188. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Pickover, Clifford (2008). Archimedes to
Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them. Oxford
University Press. pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-0-19-979268-9. Retrieved 17 March
2018.
189. ^ Swetz, Frank J. "Mathematical Treasure: Newton's Method of Fluxions".
Convergence. Mathematical Association of America. Archived from the
original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "dulles" is not used in the content
(see the help page).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
* Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New
York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20630-1.
* Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His
Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-905190-0. This well documented
work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's
knowledge of Patristics
* Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". Nature. 182 (4629):
149–152. Bibcode:1958Natur.182..149C. doi:10.1038/182149a0. S2CID 4200994.
* Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records
of the Royal Society of London. 18 (2): 136–145. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017.
S2CID 143981415.
* Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
ISBN 0-7102-0279-2.
* Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective
Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books.
ISBN 978-0-547-33604-6.
* Manuel, Frank E (1968). A Portrait of Isaac Newton. Belknap Press of Harvard
University, Cambridge, MA.
* Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning.
ISBN 978-0-495-55742-5.
* Westfall, Richard S. (1980). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-27435-7.
* Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-921355-9.
* Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47737-6.
* White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate
Limited. ISBN 978-1-85702-416-6.
FURTHER READING
PRIMARY
* Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
University of California Press, (1999)
* Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem
and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and
3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy, University of California Press (1996)
* Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical
Lectures, 1670–1672, Cambridge University Press (1984)
* Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition
* Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions,
Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.
* Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley:
University of California Press (1934)
* Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1967–1982). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07740-8. – 8 volumes.
* Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H.W. Turnbull and
others, 7 vols (1959–77)
* Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H.S.
Thayer (1953; online edition)
* Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac
Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London,
John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton (1850, Google Books)
* Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical
Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse
* Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy
and Related Documents, eds. I.B. Cohen and R.E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press
* Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A
Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library,
Cambridge, ed. A.R. Hall and M.B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
* Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702).
London: Dawson
ALCHEMY
* Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
* Craig, John (1953). "XII. Isaac Newton". The Mint: A History of the London
Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 198–222. ASIN B0000CIHG7.
* de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G.D. Knox. – Preface by
Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)
* Dobbs, B.J.T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of
the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W.W. Norton & Co.
ISBN 978-0-393-00189-1. Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many
of Newton's private papers.
* Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and
Francis. (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)
* Trabue, J. "Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir
Isaac Newton," The American Genealogist 79 (2004): 13–27.
RELIGION
* Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in
Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism
* Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context,
Nature, and Influence. (1999), pp. xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using
newly opened manuscripts
* Pfizenmaier, Thomas C (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the
History of Ideas. 58 (1): 57–80. doi:10.1353/jhi.1997.0001. JSTOR 3653988.
S2CID 170545277.
* Ramati, Ayval (2001). "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of
Fluxions". The British Journal for the History of Science. 34 (4): 417–438.
doi:10.1017/S0007087401004484. JSTOR 4028372. S2CID 143045863.
* Snobelen, Stephen D. (2001). "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology
of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia". Osiris. 16: 169–208.
Bibcode:2001Osir...16..169S. doi:10.1086/649344. JSTOR 301985.
S2CID 170364912.
* Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies
of a Nicodemite". The British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4):
381–419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR 4027945. S2CID 145208136.
SCIENCE
* Bechler, Zev (2013). Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History
of Modern Science)(Volume 9). Springer. ISBN 978-94-009-7717-4.
* Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of
the World. (2000); ISBN 0-684-84392-7
* Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1995). Newton's Principia for the Common Reader.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-851744-3.
* Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to
Newton. (2002). Focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text
search; complete edition online "The Cambridge Companion to Newton". Archived
from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2008.{{cite web}}:
CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
* Cohen, I.B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22964-7.
* Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-42233-1.
* Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". Philosophical
Transactions. 186: 291–297.
* Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places
selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by
Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein
* Herivel, J.W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of
Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
* Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard
Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958, 1978; ISBN 0-674-46853-8.
* Numbers, R.L. (2015). Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science. Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-91547-3.
* Pemberton, H. (1728). "A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy". The Physics
Teacher. 4 (1): 8–9. Bibcode:1966PhTea...4....8M. doi:10.1119/1.2350900.
* Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt
and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-25346-6.
EXTERNAL LINKS
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* Enlightening Science digital project: Texts of his papers, "Popularisations"
and podcasts at the Newton Project
* "Archival material relating to Isaac Newton". UK National Archives.
* Portraits of Sir Isaac Newton at the National Portrait Gallery, London
WRITINGS BY NEWTON
* Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project
* Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives
* The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of
all his religious writings
* Works by Isaac Newton at Project Gutenberg
* Works by or about Isaac Newton at Internet Archive
* Works by Isaac Newton at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
* "Newton Papers" – Cambridge Digital Library
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* v
* t
* e
Sir Isaac Newton
Publications
* Fluxions (1671)
* De Motu (1684)
* Principia (1687; writing)
* Opticks (1704)
* Queries (1704)
* Arithmetica (1707)
* De Analysi (1711)
Other writings
* Quaestiones (1661–1665)
* "standing on the shoulders of giants" (1675)
* Notes on the Jewish Temple (c. 1680)
* "General Scholium" (1713; "hypotheses non fingo" )
* Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728)
* Corruptions of Scripture (1754)
Contributions
* Calculus
* fluxion
* Impact depth
* Inertia
* Newton disc
* Newton polygon
* Newton–Okounkov body
* Newton's reflector
* Newtonian telescope
* Newton scale
* Newton's metal
* Spectrum
* Structural coloration
Newtonianism
* Bucket argument
* Newton's inequalities
* Newton's law of cooling
* Newton's law of universal gravitation
* post-Newtonian expansion
* parameterized
* gravitational constant
* Newton–Cartan theory
* Schrödinger–Newton equation
* Newton's laws of motion
* Kepler's laws
* Newtonian dynamics
* Newton's method in optimization
* Apollonius's problem
* truncated Newton method
* Gauss–Newton algorithm
* Newton's rings
* Newton's theorem about ovals
* Newton–Pepys problem
* Newtonian potential
* Newtonian fluid
* Classical mechanics
* Corpuscular theory of light
* Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
* Newton's notation
* Rotating spheres
* Newton's cannonball
* Newton–Cotes formulas
* Newton's method
* generalized Gauss–Newton method
* Newton fractal
* Newton's identities
* Newton polynomial
* Newton's theorem of revolving orbits
* Newton–Euler equations
* Newton number
* kissing number problem
* Newton's quotient
* Parallelogram of force
* Newton–Puiseux theorem
* Absolute space and time
* Luminiferous aether
* Newtonian series
* table
Personal life
* Woolsthorpe Manor (birthplace)
* Cranbury Park (home)
* Early life
* Later life
* Religious views
* Occult studies
* Scientific Revolution
* Copernican Revolution
Relations
* Catherine Barton (niece)
* John Conduitt (nephew-in-law)
* Isaac Barrow (professor)
* William Clarke (mentor)
* Benjamin Pulleyn (tutor)
* John Keill (disciple)
* William Stukeley (friend)
* William Jones (friend)
* Abraham de Moivre (friend)
Depictions
* Newton by Blake (monotype)
* Newton by Paolozzi (sculpture)
* Isaac Newton Gargoyle
* Astronomers Monument
Namesake
* Newton (unit)
* Newton's cradle
* Isaac Newton Institute
* Isaac Newton Medal
* Isaac Newton Telescope
* Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes
* XMM-Newton
* Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form
* Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton
* Newton International Fellowship
Categories
Isaac Newton
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Articles related to Isaac Newton
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* v
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Age of Enlightenment
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Topics
* Atheism
* Capitalism
* Civil liberties
* Counter-Enlightenment
* Critical thinking
* Deism
* Democracy
* Empiricism
* Encyclopédistes
* Enlightened absolutism
* Free markets
* Haskalah
* Humanism
* Human rights
* Liberalism
* Liberté, égalité, fraternité
* Lumières
* Methodological skepticism
* Midlands
* Nationalism
* Natural philosophy
* Objectivity
* Rationality
* Rationalism
* Reason
* Reductionism
* Sapere aude
* Science
* Scientific method
* Socialism
* Spanish America
* Universality
* Weimar Classicism
show
Thinkers
England
* Joseph Addison
* Anthony Ashley-Cooper
* Francis Bacon
* Jeremy Bentham
* Anthony Collins
* Edward Gibbon
* William Godwin
* James Harrington
* Robert Hooke
* Samuel Johnson
* John Locke
* John Milton
* Isaac Newton
* Alexander Pope
* Richard Price
* Joseph Priestley
* Joshua Reynolds
* Algernon Sidney
* Matthew Tindal
* John Trenchard
* Mary Wollstonecraft
France
* Jean le Rond d'Alembert
* René Louis d'Argenson
* Pierre Bayle
* Pierre Beaumarchais
* Nicolas Chamfort
* Émilie du Châtelet
* Étienne Bonnot de Condillac
* Marquis de Condorcet
* René Descartes
* Denis Diderot
* Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle
* Olympe de Gouges
* Claude Adrien Helvétius
* Baron d'Holbach
* Louis de Jaucourt
* Julien Offray de La Mettrie
* Antoine Lavoisier
* Georges-Louis Leclerc
* Gabriel Bonnot de Mably
* Sylvain Maréchal
* Jean Meslier
* Montesquieu
* Étienne-Gabriel Morelly
* Blaise Pascal
* François Quesnay
* Guillaume Thomas François Raynal
* Marquis de Sade
* Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
* Voltaire
Geneva
* Firmin Abauzit
* Charles Bonnet
* Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui
* Jean-Louis de Lolme
* Pierre Prévost
* Jean-Jacques Rousseau
* Antoine-Jacques Roustan
* Horace Bénédict de Saussure
* Jacob Vernes
* Jacob Vernet
Germany
* Justus Henning Böhmer
* Carl Friedrich Gauss
* Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
* Johann Gottfried von Herder
* Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel
* Wilhelm von Humboldt
* Immanuel Kant
* Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
* Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
* Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
* Moses Mendelssohn
* Samuel von Pufendorf
* Friedrich Schiller
* Christian Thomasius
* Gabriel Wagner
* Christian Felix Weiße
* Adam Weishaupt
* Christoph Martin Wieland
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18th century
* Isaac Newton (1703)
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20th century
* William Huggins (1900)
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* William Henry Bragg (1935)
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* Robert Robinson (1945)
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* Sir Aaron Klug (1995)
21st century
* Lord May (2000)
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* Sir Paul Nurse (2010)
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* Adrian Smith (2020)
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Scientists whose names are used as units
SI base units
* André-Marie Ampère (ampere)
* William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (kelvin)
SI derived units
* Henri Becquerel (becquerel)
* Anders Celsius (degree Celsius)
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Non-SI metric (cgs) units
* Anders Jonas Ångström (angstrom)
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Non-systematic units
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List of scientists whose names are used as units · Scientists whose names are
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Offices and positions held by Isaac Newton
Academic offices Preceded by
Isaac Barrow
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge
1669–1702 Succeeded by
William Whiston
Preceded by
The Lord Somers
President of the Royal Society
1703–1727 Succeeded by
Hans Sloane
Parliament of England Preceded by
Robert Brady
Member of Parliament for Cambridge University
1689–1690
With: Robert Sawyer Succeeded by
Edward Finch
Preceded by
Anthony Hammond
Member of Parliament for Cambridge University
1701–1702
With: The Lord Carleton Succeeded by
The Earl of Anglesey
Government offices Preceded by
Benjamin Overton
Warden of the Mint
1696–1700 Succeeded by
John Stanley
Preceded by
Thomas Neale
Master of the Mint
1700–1727 Succeeded by
John Conduitt
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