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CONTENTS

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 * (Top)
 * 1History of the theory
 * 2Predator-prey interactions
 * 3Human intervention
 * 4Continued popularity of the theory
 * 5In popular culture
 * 6See also
 * 7References

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BALANCE OF NATURE

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Superseded ecological theory
"Balance of Nature" redirects here. For the film, see The Balance of Nature.
German biologist Klaus Rohde with his book The Balance of Nature and Human
Impact.

The balance of nature, also known as ecological balance, is a theory that
proposes that ecological systems are usually in a stable equilibrium or
homeostasis, which is to say that a small change (the size of a particular
population, for example) will be corrected by some negative feedback that will
bring the parameter back to its original "point of balance" with the rest of the
system. The balance is sometimes depicted as easily disturbed and delicate,
while other times it is inversely portrayed as powerful enough to correct any
imbalances by itself.[1] The concept has been described as "normative", as well
as teleological, as it makes a claim about how nature should be: nature is
balanced because "it is supposed to be balanced".[2] The theory has been
employed to describe how populations depend on each other, for example in
predator-prey systems, or relationships between herbivores and their food
source.[3] It is also sometimes applied to the relationship between the Earth's
ecosystem, the composition of the atmosphere, and weather.[4]

The balance of nature, as a theory, has been largely discredited by scientists
working in ecology, as it has been found that constant disturbances leading to
chaotic and dynamic changes are the norm in nature.[5] During the later half of
the 20th century, it was superseded by catastrophe theory, chaos theory, and
thermodynamics.[6] Nevertheless, the idea maintains popularity amongst the
general public.[7][8]


HISTORY OF THE THEORY[EDIT]

Herodotus asserted that predators never excessively consume prey populations and
described this balance as "wonderful"

The concept that nature maintains its condition is of ancient provenance;
Herodotus asserted that predators never excessively consume prey populations and
described this balance as "wonderful".[9] Two of Plato's dialogues, the Timaeus
and Protagoras myths, support the balance of nature concept. Cicero advanced the
theory of "a balance of nature generated by different reproductive rates and
traits among species, as well as interactions among species".[5]

The balance of nature concept once ruled ecological research and governed the
management of natural resources. This led to a doctrine popular among some
conservationists that nature was best left to its own devices, and that human
intervention into it was by definition unacceptable.[10]

The theory was used as a central theme in the 1962 book Silent Spring by Rachel
Carson;[2] the book is widely-considered to be the most important environmental
book of the 20th century.[11] The controversial Gaia hypothesis was developed in
the 1970s by James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis;[12] it asserts that living beings
interact with Earth to form a complex system which self-regulates to maintain
the balance of nature.[5][13]

The validity of a balance of nature was already questioned in the early 1900s,
but the general abandonment of the theory by scientists working in ecology only
happened in the last quarter of that century, when studies showed that it did
not match what could be observed among plant and animal populations.[8][14]


PREDATOR-PREY INTERACTIONS[EDIT]

Predator-prey populations tend to show chaotic behavior within limits, where the
sizes of populations change in a way that may appear random but is, in fact,
obeying deterministic laws based only on the relationship between a population
and its food source illustrated by the Lotka–Volterra equation. An experimental
example of this was shown in an eight-year study on small Baltic Sea creatures
such as plankton, which were isolated from the rest of the ocean. Each member of
the food web was shown to take turns multiplying and declining, even though the
scientists kept the outside conditions constant. An article in the journal
Nature stated: "Advanced mathematical techniques proved the indisputable
presence of chaos in this food web ... short-term prediction is possible, but
long-term prediction is not."[15]


HUMAN INTERVENTION[EDIT]

Although some conservationist organizations argue that human activity is
incompatible with a balanced ecosystem, there are numerous examples in history
showing that several modern-day habitats originate from human activity: some of
Latin America's rain forests owe their existence to humans planting and
transplanting them, while the abundance of grazing animals in the Serengeti
plain of Africa is thought by some ecologists to be partly due to human-set
fires that created savanna habitats.[10]

One of the best-known and often misunderstood examples of ecosystem balance
being enhanced by human activity is the Australian Aboriginal practice of
fire-stick farming. This uses low-intensity fire when there is sufficient
humidity to limit its action, to reduce the quantity of ground-level combustible
material, to lessen the intensity and devastation of forest fires caused by
lightning at the end of the dry season. Several plant species are adapted to
fire, some even requiring its extreme heat to germinate their seeds.[16]


CONTINUED POPULARITY OF THE THEORY[EDIT]

Despite being discredited among ecologists, the theory is widely held to be true
by the general public, conservationists and environmentalists,[5] with one
author calling it an "enduring myth".[8] Environmental and conservation
organizations such as the WWF, Sierra Club and Canadian Wildlife Federation
continue to promote the theory,[17][18][19] as do animal rights organizations
such as PETA.[20]

Kim Cuddington considers the balance of nature to be a "foundational metaphor in
ecology", which is still in active use by ecologists.[21] She argues that many
ecologists see nature as a "beneficent force" and that they also view the
universe as being innately predictable; Cuddington asserts that the balance of
nature acts as a "shorthand for the paradigm expressing this worldview".[22]
Douglas Allchin and Alexander J. Werth assert that although "ecologists formally
eschew the concept of balance of nature, it remains a widely adopted
preconception and a feature of language that seems not to disappear
entirely."[2]

At least in Midwestern America, the balance of nature idea was shown to be
widely held by both science majors and the general student population.[7] In a
study at the University of Patras, educational sciences students were asked to
reason about the future of ecosystems which suffered human-driven disturbances.
Subjects agreed that it was very likely for the ecosystems to fully recover
their initial state, referring to either a 'recovery process' which restores the
initial 'balance', or specific 'recovery mechanisms' as an ecosystem's inherent
characteristic.[23] In a 2017 study, Ampatzidis and Ergazaki discuss the
learning objectives and design criteria that a learning environment for
non-biology major students should meet to support them challenge the balance of
nature concept.[24] In a 2018 study, the same authors report on the theoretical
output of a design research study, which concerns the design of a learning
environment for helping students challenge their beliefs regarding the balance
of nature and reach an up-to-date understanding about ecosystems'
contingency.[25]


IN POPULAR CULTURE[EDIT]

In Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea fantasy series, using magic means to "respect
and preserve the immanent metaphysical balance of nature."[26]

The balance of nature (referred to as "the circle of life") is a major theme of
the 1994 film, The Lion King. In one scene, the character Mufasa describes to
his son Simba how everything exists in a state of delicate balance.[1][9]

The character Agent Smith, in the 1999 film The Matrix, describes humanity as a
virus, claiming that humans fail to reach an equilibrium with their surrounding
environment; unlike other mammals.[27]

The disruption of the balance of nature is a common theme in Hayao Miyazaki's
films: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, released in 1984, is set in a
post-apocalyptic world where humans have upset the balance of nature through
war;[28] the 1997 film Princess Mononoke, depicts irresponsible activities by
humans as having damaged the balance of nature;[29][30] in the 2008 film Ponyo,
the titular character disturbs the balance of nature when she seeks to become
human.[31]

The titular character of the 2014 film Godzilla fights other sea monsters known
as "MUTOs" in a bid to restore the balance of nature.[32]

In the 2018 film Avengers: Infinity War, the villain Thanos seeks to restore the
balance of nature by eliminating half of the beings in the universe.[33]


SEE ALSO[EDIT]

 * Ecology portal
 * Environment portal

 * Ecological footprint
 * Social metabolism


REFERENCES[EDIT]

 1.  ^ Jump up to: a b Root, Tik (2019-07-26). "The 'balance of nature' is an
     enduring concept. But it's wrong". National Geographic. Retrieved
     2020-03-15.
 2.  ^ Jump up to: a b c Werth, A.; Allchin, D. (2020-03-05). "Teleology's long
     shadow". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 13 (1): 4.
     doi:10.1186/s12052-020-00118-8. ISSN 1936-6434. S2CID 212406493.
 3.  ^ Van Valen, Leigh (1973). "Pattern and the Balance of Nature" (PDF).
     Evolutionary Theory. 1: 31–44.
 4.  ^ Kureethadam, Joshtrom (2014). "Impacts of Climate Change". Creation in
     Crisis: Science, Ethics, Theology. New York: Orbis Books.
     ISBN 978-1-60833-520-6.
 5.  ^ Jump up to: a b c d Simberloff, Daniel (2014-10-07). "The "Balance of
     Nature"—Evolution of a Panchreston". PLOS Biology. 12 (10): e1001963.
     doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001963. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC 4188511.
     PMID 25290954.
 6.  ^ Wu, Jianguo; Loucks, Orie L. (1995). "From Balance of Nature to
     Hierarchical Patch Dynamics: A Paradigm Shift in Ecology". The Quarterly
     Review of Biology. 70 (4): 439–466. doi:10.1086/419172. ISSN 0033-5770.
     JSTOR 3035824. S2CID 44197757.
 7.  ^ Jump up to: a b Zimmerman, Corinne (October 2007). "Ambiguous, circular
     and polysemous: students' definitions of the "balance of nature" metaphor".
     Public Understanding of Science. 16 (4): 393–406.
     doi:10.1177/0963662505063022. S2CID 31030799.
 8.  ^ Jump up to: a b c Kricher, John (2009). The Balance of Nature: Ecology's
     Enduring Myth. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
     ISBN 978-0691138985.
 9.  ^ Jump up to: a b Jacobs, Tom (2018-08-25). "Belief in 'Balance of Nature'
     Hard to Shake". Pacific Standard. Retrieved 2020-03-20.
 10. ^ Jump up to: a b Stevens, William K. (31 July 1990). "New Eye on Nature:
     The Real Constant Is Eternal Turmoil". The New York Times. Retrieved 19
     June 2011.
 11. ^ Atwood, Margaret (2012-12-07). "Margaret Atwood: Rachel Carson's Silent
     Spring, 50 years on". The Guardian. Retrieved 2021-02-07.
 12. ^ Ball, Philip (2014-04-09). ""Gaia Hypothesis" Originator James Lovelock
     Reflects on His Career". Scientific American. Archived from the original on
     2014-04-12. Retrieved 2021-02-07.
 13. ^ Briske, David D.; Illius, Andrew W.; Anderies, J. Marty (2017), Briske,
     David D. (ed.), "Nonequilibrium Ecology and Resilience Theory", Rangeland
     Systems: Processes, Management and Challenges, Springer Series on
     Environmental Management, Springer International Publishing, pp. 197–227,
     doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_6, ISBN 978-3-319-46709-2
 14. ^ Heneghan, Liam (9 October 2012). "Out of Kilter: Old ideas of balance and
     harmony need to be put aside if we are to save a natural world in constant
     flux". Aeon. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
 15. ^ The Ottawa Citizen (13 February 2008). "Study of ocean life shows a
     "chaotic" balance of nature". CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. Archived
     from the original on 24 June 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
 16. ^ Bliege Bird, R.; Bird, D. W.; Codding, B. F.; Parker, C. H.; Jones, J. H.
     (2008-09-30). "The "fire stick farming" hypothesis: Australian Aboriginal
     foraging strategies, biodiversity, and anthropogenic fire mosaics".
     Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
     America. 105 (39): 14796–14801. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10514796B.
     doi:10.1073/pnas.0804757105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2567447. PMID 18809925.
 17. ^ "Ecological Balance". World Wide Fund for Nature. Archived from the
     original on 2018-05-17. Retrieved 2020-03-21. The most important point
     being that the natural balance in an ecosystem is maintained.
 18. ^ McVey, Vicki (1993). The Sierra Club Kid's Guide to Planet Care & Repair.
     Sierra Club Books for Children. p. 8. ISBN 978-0871565679. Summary:
     Explains how human activities are destroying the balance of nature and
     suggests ways to prevent further damage.
 19. ^ "Restore Balance to Your Backyard Habitat". Canadian Wildlife Federation.
     Archived from the original on 2017-09-21. Retrieved 2020-03-21. When we
     disrupt habitat and the natural balance of an ecosystem, the inevitable
     result is a clash between humans and wildlife.
 20. ^ "Hunting". PETA. 2010-06-24. Retrieved 2020-03-21. If left unaltered by
     humans, the delicate balance of nature's ecosystems ensures the survival of
     most species. Natural predators help maintain this balance by killing only
     the sickest and weakest individuals.
 21. ^ Cuddington, Kim (September 2001). "The "Balance of Nature" Metaphor and
     Equilibrium in Population Ecology" (PDF). Biology & Philosophy. 16 (4):
     463–479. doi:10.1023/A:1011910014900. ISSN 0169-3867. S2CID 32643520.
 22. ^ Cuddington, Kim. "The "Balance of Nature" metaphor in population ecology:
     theory or paradigm?" (PDF). Philosophy of Science Association. Retrieved
     2020-08-15.
 23. ^ Ergazaki, Marida; Ampatzidis, Georgios (2012-06-01). "Students' Reasoning
     about the Future of Disturbed or Protected Ecosystems & the Idea of the
     'Balance of Nature'". Research in Science Education. 42 (3): 511–530.
     Bibcode:2012RScEd..42..511E. doi:10.1007/s11165-011-9208-7. ISSN 0157-244X.
     S2CID 145324798.
 24. ^ Ampatzidis, Georgios; Ergazaki, Marida (2017-10-01). "Toward an
     "Anti-Balance of Nature" Learning Environment for Non-Biology Major
     Students: Learning Objectives and Design Criteria". Natural Sciences
     Education. 46 (1): 170016. doi:10.4195/nse2017.07.0016. ISSN 1059-9053.
 25. ^ Ampatzidis, Georgios; Ergazaki, Marida (2018-12-01). "Challenging
     Students' Belief in the 'Balance of Nature' Idea". Science & Education. 27
     (9): 895–919. doi:10.1007/s11191-018-0017-5. ISSN 1573-1901.
     S2CID 149911794.
 26. ^ Manlove, C. N. (1983), Manlove, C. N. (ed.), "Conservatism in Fantasy:
     Ursula le Guin", The Impulse of Fantasy Literature, London: Palgrave
     Macmillan UK, pp. 31–44, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-06383-3_3,
     ISBN 978-1-349-06383-3, retrieved 2021-02-07
 27. ^ Lavery, David (2001-01-01). "FROM CINESPACE TO CYBER SPACE: Zionists and
     Agents, Realista and Gamers in The Matrix and eXistenz". Journal of Popular
     Film and Television. 28 (4): 150–157. doi:10.1080/01956050109602836.
     ISSN 0195-6051. S2CID 62605044.
 28. ^ Çay, Merve (2021). "Tainted Away: Violence Over Nature in the Anime of
     Hayao Miyazaki". Handbook of Research on Aestheticization of Violence,
     Horror, and Power. doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch014. ISSN 2475-6814.
     S2CID 228868560. Retrieved 2021-02-07.
 29. ^ Abidin, Zainal (2018). The Loss of Biodiversity Reflected in Princess
     Mononoke Movie By Hayao Miyazaki (Bachelor's thesis). Universitas
     Brawijaya.
 30. ^ Cheng, Catherine Ju-yu (2019-06-01). "Nature and the Smiths in Hayao
     Miyazaki's Princess Mononoke". Tamkang Review. 49 (2).
     doi:10.6184/TKR.201906_49(2).0002.
 31. ^ Rustin, Michael; Rustin, Margaret (2012-06-01). "Fantasy and reality in
     Miyazaki's animated world". Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society. 17 (2):
     169–184. doi:10.1057/pcs.2012.21. ISSN 1543-3390. S2CID 144492409.
 32. ^ Murray, Robin L.; Heumann, Joseph K. (2016). Monstrous Nature:
     Environment and Horror on the Big Screen. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of
     Nebraska Press. pp. xii. ISBN 978-0803294929.
 33. ^ Newell, Phil (2018-07-09). "Thanos Revives Centuries-Old Debate About
     Overpopulation". Nexus Media News. Archived from the original on
     2020-10-30. Retrieved 2021-02-07.



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Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components
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