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Science | May 1, 2024


HOW SHOULD COLORADO HANDLE ITS BOOMING MOOSE POPULATION?

Roughly 3,000 animals now roam the state’s mountain ranges


A moose moves through the forest. David Dietrich

Jeremy Miller, bioGraphic



The forest ranger had a troubled look on his face. It was the summer of 2022 and
my kids and I were trudging up a steep trail in the Indian Peaks Wilderness,
near Denver, when we encountered him. He stood amid a small grove of subalpine
fir, clutching a walkie-talkie tightly in his hand. As we came closer, he
brought one index finger to his lips and pointed with the other into the
distance.

“Moose,” he whispered.



Below us, perhaps 100 yards away in a flower-strewn meadow, a cow and her calf
munched grass without concern. “Cute!” exclaimed my teenage daughter.

“Go that way,” the ranger said gruffly, pointing up a steep slope covered in
boulders. We walked on, weaving through a crowd of curious onlookers. Some
inched closer to the moose for a better look. Others held cellphones, swiping
fingers across screens to bring the animals into better view.

Few creatures evoke American wilderness like Alces americanus, the American
moose. It is the largest member of the deer family and the second largest land
animal in North America behind the American bison (Bison bison). Its imposing
size is undercut by its goofy countenance—the wide fan of horns, the thin legs
that suspend a hefty body, the face like a hand-puppet fashioned from a worn-out
sock. Despite their ungainly appearance, moose are formidable and, at times,
graceful, reaching speeds of 35 miles per hour at full gallop.

Growing up in Colorado in the late 1980s and early ’90s, I took trips with my
father into designated wildernesses in the northern part of the state—the Flat
Tops, Mount Zirkel, the Rawah—hoping to glimpse a moose. We never did. These
days I often encounter them when out hiking. For a while, I thought my luck had
changed. But I’ve since learned that these experiences are nothing particularly
special. Though moose are notoriously hard to count, the Colorado Parks and
Wildlife Department estimates that there are now around 3,000 scattered through
the state’s major mountain ranges.



That figure, however, does not adequately describe their growing presence here.
The comment sections for dozens of hikes in Colorado’s Front Range and the San
Juan, Sawatch and Elk Mountains on the popular AllTrails app are a litany of
moose sightings. Several moose have even made their way into the suburban sprawl
of metro Denver, the state’s capital and largest city, browsing in greenbelts,
sauntering across golf courses, loitering in mall parking lots.

As Colorado’s human and moose populations have grown in tandem, so have the
number of conflicts. Over a two-week span in spring of 2022, moose attacked
people in three separate incidents. One of those occurred near the mountain town
of Nederland, where a mother moose trampled and severely injured a hiker and a
dog; a police officer shot her, and wildlife officials took her calf into
custody. In September 2022, a moose gored and nearly killed a bowhunter in
northern Colorado after the hunter’s arrow whistled wide of its mark. More often
than not, however, moose come out on the losing end of these clashes. According
to the Colorado Department of Transportation, cars struck and killed 59 moose in
2022. In 2012, the number was just four.

As human and moose populations grow in Colorado, so too have their interactions:
Both moose attacks on humans and car strikes on moose have increased
dramatically in recent years. David Dietrich

Despite the increase in dangerous encounters, the moose has emerged as a potent
symbol and ambassador of the wild in a state enamored of its outdoor
places—depicted in murals and statues in many mountain towns. A large painting
of a moose even graces Coors Field, the home of the Colorado Rockies baseball
team.

There’s just one problem. As much as Alces americanus seem to belong in
Colorado, the species’ native range is in more northerly latitudes and doesn’t
extend into the state. Colorado’s wildlife department introduced moose from
Wyoming and Utah beginning in the 1970s to put money into its own coffers
through the sale of hunting licenses. In that bygone era of wildlife management,
the will of a few high-ranking state officials was enough to set a great
ecological experiment into motion.

To be sure, human values have always helped shape wildlife policy. In Colorado
and elsewhere in the American West, game animals, including mountain goats, elk
and bison, have been introduced to places where they never lived or have been
sustained in unnaturally high numbers to satisfy hunters and wildlife watchers.
Those efforts have frequently caused dramatic environmental changes. Indeed, now
that moose are flourishing in Colorado, they are behaving in unexpected ways,
challenging management paradigms and emerging in new environments. As moose
occupy an ever larger part of Colorado’s natural present, biologists are working
to understand their effects on native plants and animals. All of which leads to
an all-consuming question: In an environment increasingly altered by
agriculture, urbanization and the ever-expanding footprint of human
infrastructure, do moose have a place in the state’s ecological future?

A light dusting of snow covers a moose. David Dietrich


In the winter of 1978, a handful of state wildlife staff huddled together one
morning in the Uinta Mountains in northern Utah. Led by chief of big game, Dick
Denney, the team had traveled there to search for moose, a smallish subspecies
known as Shiras (pronounced SHY-rass) found in the Rocky Mountains. Deep snows
coated the peaks and filled the valleys. To fight off the chill, the officials
wore government-issue olive drab winter gear—all save one, an older gentleman
with a pompadour of white hair in a bright red snowsuit. This was the signature
attire of Marlin Perkins, zoologist and co-host of “Mutual of Omaha’s Wild
Kingdom,” who had traveled to Utah to capture the event for an episode called
“Moose Airlift.”

As the capture got underway, a pair of helicopters cruised over the landscape. A
man with a rifle under his arm sat perched in the smaller of the two aircraft,
which descended toward a cow moose and her yearling calf in a snowy meadow.
There was a sharp report, not from a bullet but a tranquilizer dart, and the cow
took off at a run. Within minutes, her legs went wobbly, and the crew landed and
set to work. They placed a blindfold over the animal’s eyes and drew her blood,
testing to ensure she was not infected with brucellosis or leptospirosis, two
diseases that can pass to (and from) domestic cattle.

The team then fitted the cow moose with a telemetry collar and an ear tag, and
carefully slid a specially designed sling under her belly, attached by a rope to
one of the helicopters. For a moment, as the pilot eased into the air, the moose
lurched, drawing her legs upward as her feet left the ground—“a common reflex,”
as Perkins described it in his folksy narration. At last, the animal appeared to
relax as she soared over the rugged valley, bound for her new home—a vast
expanse of sagebrush and willow between two major mountain ranges in northern
Colorado, known as North Park.

Moose were rarely seen south of Yellowstone National Park before the early
1900s. Their populations grew in Colorado following their airlifted transport to
the region in the 1970s.  Courtesy of Denver Public Library

She would not, technically, be the first moose to set foot in the state: The
animals appear in a few scattered accounts from settlers in the mid-1800s. One
of the best-known comes from Milton Estes, a member of the family that founded
the northern mountain town of Estes Park, who killed a bull moose in that area
in the 1860s as it mingled with a herd of elk. Biologists today believe moose
like the one Estes killed were transient, perhaps dispersing juveniles entering
the state from Wyoming, and officials generally agree that Colorado never
supported a breeding population.



To make their case for introducing moose to the state’s mountains, Denney and
his colleagues had argued that moose would have eventually migrated to and
thrived in Colorado on their own, had people not blocked the way. Settlers and
Indigenous hunters were “undoubtedly the primary limiting factor in Colorado
moose establishment,” Denney wrote in an article for Colorado Outdoors in 1977.
“Practically every moose that has come into Colorado has ended up by being eaten
or shot and abandoned.”

That’s a plausible explanation, according to noted Colorado State University
wildlife conservation expert Joel Berger. Moose were rarely sighted south of the
lands that would become Yellowstone National Park, in northwestern Wyoming,
before the early 1900s, he said. Then, after settlers extirpated predators from
the Yellowstone area, a member of the Shoshone tribe encountered a moose on the
east side of the Wind River Mountains, in central Wyoming. “He didn’t know what
it was, because they hadn’t occurred there before,” said Berger. The Red Desert,
a vast expanse of arid land in southwestern Wyoming, was also likely a
formidable obstacle.

In total, between 1978 and 1979, Colorado’s wildlife department airlifted a
dozen moose out of the Uintas—along with a dozen more from Wyoming’s Tetons—and
hauled them to North Park. There, they remained in a small enclosure for several
days before being released into the rolling high plains along the Illinois
River.

A young biologist named Gene Schoonveld was among the officials with the
Colorado Division of Wildlife who orchestrated the process. An avid moose
hunter, Schoonveld had moved from Canada to Colorado in the late ’60s to attend
graduate school at Colorado State University. When he wasn’t in class, he spent
days exploring the mountain valleys and basins of the Rockies, marveling over
the copious stands of willow and aspen, favorite food sources for moose.



After landing a job at the state wildlife department, he immediately pestered
Denney, his supervisor, to pursue moose introduction. “I knew that moose could
live down here and I let Dick know how I felt,” he told me when I reached him by
phone in the fall of 2022, shortly before his death from a long illness.

Dick Denney, former Colorado chief of big game, displays the antlers of an adult
moose. Courtesy of Denver Public Library

The idea of introducing moose to Colorado had been kicked around for decades,
but ranchers in rural communities who feared moose would compete with their
cattle for forage resisted those plans, and they never materialized. Denney’s
1976 “proposal” to introduce the half-ton animals is a mere 54 pages and
includes no comprehensive studies of their potential ecological impacts. And
although Schoonveld and Denney interviewed residents of northern Colorado about
the releases, they dismissed the opposition as unfounded. After all, moose
wouldn’t be feeding on hay bales or grass, Schoonveld said; they’re browsers
that subsist almost entirely on willow, aspen and other woody material. “We
brought them to Colorado because we could,” he said, “because we had the space
and the habitat for them.”

Amid North Park’s rich willow stands, the two dozen transplanted moose kicked
into reproductive overdrive. In 1980, nearly one in five gave birth to two
offspring at once—a phenomenon called “twinning” that often occurs among
ungulates when food is especially plentiful. By the winter of 1988, a decade
after introduction, the moose population had grown to around 250.

The animals proved so successful and so popular with residents and visitors
that, between 1987 and 2010, wildlife officials transplanted more moose to other
parts of Colorado, where they thrived in a variety of habitats. On the semi-arid
slopes of Grand Mesa near the state’s western border, for example, where moose
were introduced in 2005, moose subsist mainly on Gambel oak rather than willow.
They’ve also adjusted to high-elevation valleys of the San Juan Mountains near
Colorado’s southern border, where they were introduced in the early 1990s. That
makes them the southernmost moose herd in the world, according to Eric Bergman,
a research scientist and moose specialist with Colorado Parks and Wildlife.

The species may be pushing still farther southward. Last fall, a moose was
spotted in the mountains of northern New Mexico, near Taos, presumably after
crossing the Colorado border. “Biologists generally expected them to do well,”
Bergman said of the introduction, “and they certainly did.”

Dust drifts up between two moose. David Dietrich


Rocky Mountain National Park, just east of North Park, is among the places that
have witnessed that rapid growth. Park biologists estimate that 40 to 60 moose
now wander the western side of the park. On the more touristed east side, moose
now inhabit every drainage and are likely increasing. And little wonder: The
415-square-mile preserve has some of best moose habitat in the state, with deep
glacially carved valleys and willow-thick stream bottoms.

Last April, I sat down with landscape ecologist Will Deacy in his office at
Rocky Mountain National Park headquarters as he called up a satellite map on his
computer. The park service has fitted 23 moose with telemetry collars, and Deacy
showed me one of their routes. The path, transmitted over the course of a
season, looked like a child’s scribble, moving to and fro with little regard for
the ragged topography. Animals have been known to traverse the entire park in
just a few days, hinting at the expansive size of their overlapping ranges,
which have been shown elsewhere to cover areas as large as 50 square miles.

Deacy next pulled up an infrared image of a mountainside covered in dark trees,
gathered by an aircraft mounted with an infrared camera. A closer look revealed
several white silhouettes, like small Bullwinkles, scattered amid the pines:
moose going about their mysterious business. “They are a new species in a new
context,” Deacy said. These supremely adaptable animals could behave very
differently in Rocky Mountain than they do in, say, Yellowstone or Glacier
National Parks, he explains. “There is so much we just don’t know.”

One of those unknowns is just how moose will affect a landscape already heavily
browsed by native elk. Settlers once hunted elk nearly to extinction in this
part of the state, but in 1913, officials reintroduced them within the
protective boundaries of the national park, where hunting was banned. By the
latter half of the 20th century, elk here also no longer faced predation by
wolves or grizzlies, both of which were extirpated from the state by hunters and
trappers. The local herd ballooned to as many as 3,500 animals by the early
2000s—far more than the maximum of 2,100 that the park service deemed
sustainable. The elk rapidly chewed through willow stands, particularly along
streams, and the park’s mature willow plants declined by 96 percent between 1999
and 2019. Under the auspices of the park’s Elk and Vegetation Management Plan,
officials called in sharpshooters to cull some elk and constructed tall fences
called “exclosures” around more than 200 acres of sensitive aspen and willows
along creeks, wetlands and rivers, to keep large ungulates out. They also set in
motion surveys of hundreds of scattered plots to monitor browsing and the health
of the park’s willows, foundational plant species along its streams. The
fragrant shrubs stabilize soil and prevent erosion, while providing food and
sanctuary for hundreds of species of mammals, insects, fish and birds.

On a brisk morning during my April visit to the park, I followed Deacy and
biological technicians Nick Bartusch and Kim Sutton to one of those plots, in a
meadow near the headwaters of the Fall River. Our feet crunched through a thick
layer of frost, and deep snow still blanketed the 12,000- to 13,000-foot peaks
of the Mummy Range towering above. Sutton swiped a metal detector across the
matted grass until she found four markers. Then, Bartusch strung orange thread
between them, forming a crude square, and began to evaluate the plants within.
Though the spring bloom was approaching, the limbs remained leafless, making
evidence of herbivory easier to see. Bartusch looked for signs, gently caressing
the plants. The largest in the plot had clearly been browsed, with buds missing
and limbs chewed to ribbons.



As the team recorded their findings, I wandered around the plot’s perimeter.
Impressed into a semi-frozen patch of mud was a single, six-inch-long hoofprint.
I showed Deacy. “Looks like moose,” he said.

Currently the park has no equivalent of the elk plan for its moose. Though moose
arrived here in 1980, just two years after the North Park releases, visitors and
researchers rarely encountered them prior to 2015, said Bartusch. “Now it’s
almost daily.” That sudden prevalence complicates existing efforts to recover
park vegetation. A single adult moose can eat up to 60 pounds of willow per day,
far more than an adult elk, which consumes roughly a third of that amount of
forage, only a fraction of which is willow.

In other words, too many moose could create new problems for the host of other
creatures that depend on this critical plant. For example, Berger, the Colorado
State University wildlife biologist, conducted research in riparian zones in the
Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks and found that neotropical migratory
songbirds, such as warblers and flycatchers, occur at much lower densities where
there are large populations of moose, particularly where moose don’t face
pressure from predators.

Four bird species that he expected to see during that study didn’t occur at all,
Berger said, “because moose browsing had been so intense.” And because national
parks ban hunting, moose tend to congregate within their borders, achieving
densities almost five times higher than outside of them, Berger added, meaning
Rocky Mountain National Park may see magnified effects over time.

Scientists conduct willow surveys to assess the impact of moose populations on
park vegetation. Moose can eat up to 60 pounds of willow per day, significantly
impacting local plants and other wildlife that rely on them.  Jeremy Miller

Meanwhile, the moose here are exhibiting new and surprising behaviors that could
affect the park’s ailing vegetation. Moose tend to be solitary animals, said
Bartusch. In 2019, however, he had an encounter in the park that challenged that
notion. He and a crew member were working on the park’s west side when they
spotted a couple of moose in a large meadow. “We weren’t worried about it
because they were a long way off,” said Bartusch. “So we went about our business
and suddenly we realized we’d somehow managed to get surrounded. My partner and
I counted 33 individual moose.”



According to Deacy, groups of moose sometimes “yard up” in the winter to stomp
out a comfortable spot in deep snow. But such congregations are rare in summer.
In this case, said Bartusch, the animals seemed to be moving in a herd. If the
behavior became commonplace among Rocky Mountain’s moose, it could concentrate
their impacts. “People love their moose,” said Elaine Leslie, former chief of
the National Park Service’s Biological Resource Management Division. But too
many animals could very well threaten “the primary purpose of the park, which is
the preservation of resources.”

What might a Rocky Mountain National Park moose management plan look like? First
of all it requires sound scientific data on moose populations. If they determine
there are too many moose, Leslie said, options include working with the state to
increase moose hunting on Rocky Mountain’s periphery. She also mentioned dosing
animals with contraceptives delivered via darts. The worst-case scenario, she
said, would be having to conduct a moose cull, as other parks have done
periodically to bring down their elk populations.

Further complicating management is the degree to which Rocky Mountain’s
ecosystems have already been modified by people. Before the park was
established, ranchers and farmers plowed willows under to provide forage for
horses and cows; others dewatered and altered stream channels and meadows to
make way for roads, parking lots, visitor centers and other bits of
infrastructure. Directly restoring the park’s beleaguered willow stands and
wetlands, therefore, would go a long way toward making the environment more
resilient against future moose damage.

To that end, the park is attempting to coax beaver back within its boundaries
from surrounding waterways to build ponds and raise the water table. That, in
turn, would help willows regenerate and grow. Park staff are counting on the
exclosures to do double duty, protecting beavers and their handiwork from any
boost in elk or moose numbers that willow regrowth might bring.

Leslie sees another potential solution in Colorado’s wolf reintroduction, which
brought ten animals to Grand County, in the Central Rockies, in December 2023.
Wolves are the main predator of elk and moose, and they could help ease pressure
on the park’s willow and aspen if they recolonize the area and reduce
populations or induce herds to keep moving. That’s what happened in Yellowstone
after the federal government restored wolves, and as grizzly bear and other
struggling predator populations rebounded.

A moose wades through the water. David Dietrich


On a bright late-July morning last year, I visited State Forest State Park, in
the same region where officials originally released moose in 1978. Today, as
many as 700 roam the area, comprising nearly one-fourth of the state population.
“It’s the last frontier,” said Tony Johnson, a State Forest law enforcement
ranger, “where there are no chain stores, but moose on every corner.”

I headed to a campground and trail that Johnson identified as a “moose hotspot.”
“There is a moose there that goes from being a very neat encounter to a
potentially dangerous situation pretty quickly,” he had told me. At the
trailhead, as if on cue, a large juvenile male emerged from a stand of pines. It
stood mere feet from the dirt path, munching on willows as a procession of
ultra-marathoners plodded by. Some stopped to gawk. Others glanced at the animal
as if it were a hallucination—understandable, perhaps, given that the runners
were about 15 miles into a punishing 65-mile race.

Even though moose pose potential threats to native ecosystems and people, local
communities are learning to co-exist with the animals. In Walden, 25 minutes
north, moose have become such frequent visitors that a sign on the way into town
proudly proclaims it “The Moose Viewing Capital of Colorado.” “We have them in
town quite often,” said Josh Dilley, State Forest’s park manager, who met me on
the trail. They especially like to congregate around the elementary school,
Dilley explained, “so we’ll go sit strategically between the moose and the kids
while they’re going to school.” When moose loiter too long in front yards and
public parks, wildlife officials haze them away with firecrackers or non-lethal
rubber buckshot. On rare occasions, they sedate an unruly moose with a dart and
transplant it elsewhere by truck.

Along the trail, Dilley and I encountered dozens of hikers and several bags of
dog poop, which Dilley dutifully retrieved. Dogs, Dilley explained, present one
of the greatest sources of conflict with moose. Moose do not distinguish a
Pomeranian from a gray wolf. And rather than run away, an adult moose will stand
its ground or chase an unleashed dog back to its owner, often attempting to gore
a dog with its antlers or crush it with its hooves. A week later, at State
Forest’s annual “Moose Fest,” I spoke with Trina Romero, a wildlife viewing
coordinator with Colorado Parks and Wildlife, who said that moose attacks in the
state now outnumber bear and mountain lion attacks combined, even though moose
numbers are significantly lower.

Despite growing pains as Coloradans figure out how to co-exist with this large,
non-native ungulate, the state has become something of a de facto refuge for the
species. Moose populations in much of their native range across the northern
U.S. are plummeting. In New Hampshire, they declined by nearly half between the
mid-1990s and late-2010s, owing to habitat loss from clear-cutting and warming
temperatures, which have triggered a sharp rise in ticks.



Wyoming also used to be a moose stronghold, but today Colorado has more moose
than its neighbor to the north. And there are signs that Colorado’s moose
numbers may be naturally stabilizing. “We have some evidence that our moose
population is expressing characteristics of being at or near carrying capacity,
such as lower pregnancy rates and animals skipping breeding,” Bergman said.

Because biologists don’t have great information on the long-term trajectory of
state moose populations, Bergman said, his agency is conservative when it comes
to apportioning moose tags to hunters each year. “We could probably use
[hunting] as a tool to bring down density … but we also face social pressure to
maintain high densities of animals. People love seeing moose, so it really is
about finding trade-offs and middle ground.”

Others are not so optimistic. Moose “are one of my favorites,” said Elaine
Leslie. “But I’m worried about what is happening at the ecosystem level,
especially in Rocky Mountain National Park. That is a very biodiverse area right
now.”

Moose gather together. David Dietrich

For the sake of Colorado’s moose and the ecosystems they inhabit, Leslie said,
the state’s ardor must turn to more research, rigorous population counts and
science-based management. “You have to look at the big picture, at what happens
20 and 30 years down the road.” Otherwise, Colorado residents may find sorrow
after sorrow: increasingly denuded streambanks, more frequent attacks and car
collisions, and greater numbers of moose in the crosshairs.

“It’s partly everybody’s fault, the state and the feds, because we don’t think
into the future very well,” Leslie said. “And we don’t learn from history.
Unless everybody gets on the same page, it’s going to get ugly.”



This story originally appeared in bioGraphic, an independent magazine about
nature and regeneration powered by the California Academy of Sciences.

Get the latest Science stories in your inbox.



Filed Under: Animals, Conservation, Environment, Mammals, wildlife


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do not allow these cookies, you will still see ads, but they will not be
targeted based on your online activities.

STORE AND/OR ACCESS INFORMATION ON A DEVICE 670 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE

Store and/or access information on a device

Cookies, device or similar online identifiers (e.g. login-based identifiers,
randomly assigned identifiers, network based identifiers) together with other
information (e.g. browser type and information, language, screen size, supported
technologies etc.) can be stored or read on your device to recognise it each
time it connects to an app or to a website, for one or several of the purposes
presented here.

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PERSONALISED ADVERTISING AND CONTENT, ADVERTISING AND CONTENT MEASUREMENT,
AUDIENCE RESEARCH AND SERVICES DEVELOPMENT 794 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE

Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement,
audience research and services development

 * USE LIMITED DATA TO SELECT ADVERTISING 606 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
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   Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on limited data,
   such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your
   device type or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for
   example, to limit the number of times an ad is presented to you).
   
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 * CREATE PROFILES FOR PERSONALISED ADVERTISING 492 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS
   PURPOSE
   
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   Information about your activity on this service (such as forms you submit,
   content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about
   you (for example, information from your previous activity on this service and
   other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or
   improve a profile about you (that might include possible interests and
   personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present
   advertising that appears more relevant based on your possible interests by
   this and other entities.
   
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 * USE PROFILES TO SELECT PERSONALISED ADVERTISING 487 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS
   PURPOSE
   
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   Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on your advertising
   profiles, which can reflect your activity on this service or other websites
   or apps (like the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests
   and personal aspects.
   
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 * CREATE PROFILES TO PERSONALISE CONTENT 217 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
   Switch Label
   
   Information about your activity on this service (for instance, forms you
   submit, non-advertising content you look at) can be stored and combined with
   other information about you (such as your previous activity on this service
   or other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or
   improve a profile about you (which might for example include possible
   interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to
   present content that appears more relevant based on your possible interests,
   such as by adapting the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is
   even easier for you to find content that matches your interests.
   
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 * USE PROFILES TO SELECT PERSONALISED CONTENT 190 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
   Switch Label
   
   Content presented to you on this service can be based on your content
   personalisation profiles, which can reflect your activity on this or other
   services (for instance, the forms you submit, content you look at), possible
   interests and personal aspects, such as by adapting the order in which
   content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find
   (non-advertising) content that matches your interests.
   
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 * MEASURE ADVERTISING PERFORMANCE 707 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
   Switch Label
   
   Information regarding which advertising is presented to you and how you
   interact with it can be used to determine how well an advert has worked for
   you or other users and whether the goals of the advertising were reached. For
   instance, whether you saw an ad, whether you clicked on it, whether it led
   you to buy a product or visit a website, etc. This is very helpful to
   understand the relevance of advertising campaigns.
   
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 * MEASURE CONTENT PERFORMANCE 357 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
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   Information regarding which content is presented to you and how you interact
   with it can be used to determine whether the (non-advertising) content e.g.
   reached its intended audience and matched your interests. For instance,
   whether you read an article, watch a video, listen to a podcast or look at a
   product description, how long you spent on this service and the web pages you
   visit etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of
   (non-advertising) content that is shown to you.
   
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 * UNDERSTAND AUDIENCES THROUGH STATISTICS OR COMBINATIONS OF DATA FROM
   DIFFERENT SOURCES 447 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
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   Reports can be generated based on the combination of data sets (like user
   profiles, statistics, market research, analytics data) regarding your
   interactions and those of other users with advertising or (non-advertising)
   content to identify common characteristics (for instance, to determine which
   target audiences are more receptive to an ad campaign or to certain
   contents).
   
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 * DEVELOP AND IMPROVE SERVICES 532 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
   Switch Label
   
   Information about your activity on this service, such as your interaction
   with ads or content, can be very helpful to improve products and services and
   to build new products and services based on user interactions, the type of
   audience, etc. This specific purpose does not include the development or
   improvement of user profiles and identifiers.
   
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 * USE LIMITED DATA TO SELECT CONTENT 120 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE
   
   Switch Label
   
   Content presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such
   as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device
   type, or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example,
   to limit the number of times a video or an article is presented to you).
   
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   Object to Legitimate Interests Remove Objection

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USE PRECISE GEOLOCATION DATA 258 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE

Use precise geolocation data

With your acceptance, your precise location (within a radius of less than 500
metres) may be used in support of the purposes explained in this notice.

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ACTIVELY SCAN DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS FOR IDENTIFICATION 119 PARTNERS CAN USE
THIS PURPOSE

Actively scan device characteristics for identification

With your acceptance, certain characteristics specific to your device might be
requested and used to distinguish it from other devices (such as the installed
fonts or plugins, the resolution of your screen) in support of the purposes
explained in this notice.

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ENSURE SECURITY, PREVENT AND DETECT FRAUD, AND FIX ERRORS 504 PARTNERS CAN USE
THIS PURPOSE

Always Active

Your data can be used to monitor for and prevent unusual and possibly fraudulent
activity (for example, regarding advertising, ad clicks by bots), and ensure
systems and processes work properly and securely. It can also be used to correct
any problems you, the publisher or the advertiser may encounter in the delivery
of content and ads and in your interaction with them.

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DELIVER AND PRESENT ADVERTISING AND CONTENT 492 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE

Always Active

Certain information (like an IP address or device capabilities) is used to
ensure the technical compatibility of the content or advertising, and to
facilitate the transmission of the content or ad to your device.

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MATCH AND COMBINE DATA FROM OTHER DATA SOURCES 351 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE

Always Active

Information about your activity on this service may be matched and combined with
other information relating to you and originating from various sources (for
instance your activity on a separate online service, your use of a loyalty card
in-store, or your answers to a survey), in support of the purposes explained in
this notice.

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LINK DIFFERENT DEVICES 327 PARTNERS CAN USE THIS PURPOSE

Always Active

In support of the purposes explained in this notice, your device might be
considered as likely linked to other devices that belong to you or your
household (for instance because you are logged in to the same service on both
your phone and your computer, or because you may use the same Internet
connection on both devices).

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IDENTIFY DEVICES BASED ON INFORMATION TRANSMITTED AUTOMATICALLY 477 PARTNERS CAN
USE THIS PURPOSE

Always Active

Your device might be distinguished from other devices based on information it
automatically sends when accessing the Internet (for instance, the IP address of
your Internet connection or the type of browser you are using) in support of the
purposes exposed in this notice.

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