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ArticlePDF Available DESIGN FOR FRONTIER CONTEXTS: CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT OF A NEW DESIGN METHODOLOGY WITH HUMANITARIAN APPLICATIONS * January 2009 * International Journal of Engineering Education 25(5) Authors: Matthew G. Green * LeTourneau University Matthewgreen@letu Matthewgreen@letu * This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet. Dan Jensen Dan Jensen * This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet. Dan Af Jensen@usafa Dan Af Jensen@usafa * This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet. Show all 7 authorsHide Download full-text PDFRead full-text Download full-text PDF Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Citations (25) References (48) Figures (3) ABSTRACT AND FIGURES Synopsis: This paper presents classroom assessment of a new design method for contexts "frontier" to the designer. The method adds the formal consideration of the design "context" to traditional customer needs assessment. Testing under both controlled and classroom conditions shows the new method is extremely effective, easy to use, and well received by students. Implementation at three US schools has shown positive results signifying broad applicability in education as well as field practice. Here we present the essence of the method, results of testing, and examples. : Product Design Context Categories … Experimental Methodology-Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood … : Case Study Outcomes Summary … Figures - uploaded by Carolyn C Seepersad Author content All figure content in this area was uploaded by Carolyn C Seepersad Content may be subject to copyright. Discover the world's research * 25+ million members * 160+ million publication pages * 2.3+ billion citations Join for free Powered By 10 Research reveals a potential new biotherapy for Alzheimer’s disease Share Next Stay Public Full-text 1 Content uploaded by Carolyn C Seepersad Author content All content in this area was uploaded by Carolyn C Seepersad Content may be subject to copyright. Design for Frontier Contexts: Classroom Assessment of a New Design Methodology with Humanitarian Applications Matthew G. Green, MatthewGreen@letu.edu LeTourneau University Dan Jensen, dan.jensen@usafa.af.mil US Air Force Academy Carolyn C. Seepersad, ccseepersad@mail.utexas.edu The University of Texas at Austin Kristin L. Wood, wood@mail.utexas.edu The University of Texas at Austin Keywords: Customer Needs, Latent Needs, Task Clarification, Design Methods, Developing Countries, Assistive Technology Synopsis: This paper presents classroom assessment of a new design method for contexts “frontier” to the designer. The method adds the formal consideration of the design “context” to traditional customer needs assessment. Testing under both controlled and classroom conditions shows the new method is extremely effective, easy to use, and well received by students. Implementation at three US schools has shown positive results signifying broad applicability in education as well as field practice. Here we present the essence of the method, results of testing, and examples. 1 Introduction, Motivation, and Literature Background 1.1 Introduction This paper presents classroom assessment results of a new design method especially well suited for contexts that are “frontier” or foreign to the designer. Engineering educators are recognizing the value of exposing students to need-based engineering problems and pedagogies [1,2]. A parallel interest is globalizing the scope of engineering education. These important topics are both addressed by a service-learning approach to globally-based humanitarian projects [3,4,5]. The importance of integrating both globalization and social needs into the engineering curriculum is acknowledged by the ABET criteria. Human need is also a clear priority of the engineering profession, as indicated in the NSPE creeda. However, the majority of engineering students are not familiar with the contexts in which vast needs exist, such as among persons with disabilities or the 4 billion people living on less than $2 a day (PPP) [6]. These conditions represent formidable frontier design contexts, environments and situations outside the experience and expertise of most engineering designers, especially students. Currently taught design methodologies advocate gathering customer needs, and many methods reference the importance of doing so within the context of use. However, sufficiently understanding design needs is notoriously problematic within frontier contexts, where data and contextual experience are not readily available. This challenge resonates with organizations such as Engineers for a Sustainable World (ESW), Engineers without Borders (EWB), Engineering Ministries International (EMI), and other humanitarian and educational organizations engineering high human-impact solutions in unfamiliar, frontier contexts. In response to this need, we have developed a basic but powerful Design for Frontier Contexts methodology [7,8] to improve discovery and application of contextual information vital to successful frontier design. Grounded in empirical product-context studies [9,10], the Design for Frontier Contexts method supports gathering, documenting, and applying contextual design information. By improving needs assessment, the method is expected to increase the successful application of engineering to high human-need contexts such as poor areas of developing countries and assistive technologies for persons with disabilities. The new needs assessment method can also improve the design of mainstream consumer products to provide greater benefit to humanity with lower consumption of resources. The method enhances the use of context-specific resources and provides a common template for collaborative communication among geographically diverse groups. Evaluation under controlled conditions suggests the new method is not only extremely effective, but also easy to use and well received by students. Classroom testing has shown very positive results, signifying broad applicability in education as well as field practice. We have sought to integrate the method into the design curricula of our departments, and conduct ongoing assessment for continued improvement. Here we present the essence of the method, results of preliminary testing, and examples of student projects. Templates, lecture slides, and examples in electronic format are freely available from the first author. a “As a Professional Engineer, I dedicate my professional knowledge and skill to the advancement and betterment of human welfare …” (NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers) 1.2 Benefits of Understanding Design Context Engineers are often called on to design for frontier design contexts outside their experience and expertise. This situation occurs by default because engineers are a subset of society; they design products to be used by children, remote villagers, the illiterate, and other groups typically not represented among design engineers. Additionally, the importance multi- national companies place on positioning products in a global marketplace requires design for customers in other countries, cultures, and economies. Although most design engineering is currently performed in developed countries, 86% of the world lives in a developing country [11]. A special case of global design occurs when engineers in affluent societies create life-improving designs for use in high human-need environments, such as the human-powered Freeplay Radio initially targeted at rural African customers. (A case study of the Freeplay Radio design is given by Cagan and Vogel [12]). Another example is the “robust, fully articulating dental chair and battery-operated hand piece, all in a package you can comfortably carry on your back” developed by the US-based Indigenous People’s Technology & Education Center (I-TEC) to enable dental care in remote regions [13]. One of the top business books of 2004, “The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid” makes the case that “the world's poor [are] potential customers …” and that everyone will benefit when recognizing the market potential among the 4 billion people living on less than $2 a day (PPP) [6]. Numerous opportunities exist for engineering designs to improve the quality of life on a global scale, many of which are in frontier design contexts. In addition to the large international development programs of many wealthy nations, smaller, non- governmental organizations such as Engineers for A Sustainable World (ESW), Engineers without Borders (EWB), and Engineering Ministries International (EMI), are also acting upon such opportunities. The product definition stage is critical for the success of any new product, and particularly problematic for frontier design contexts. An opportunity exists to increase the success of any product design process, particularly when addressing a frontier context, through the application of formal methods for discovering, documenting, and addressing the product design context during the design process. Understanding how context factors influence customer needs and preferences greatly enhances the chances of defining products which will satisfy and delight customers. A first benefit of improved contextual understanding is to facilitate and organize the needs gathering process. This contextual understanding will improve the quality and quantity of information gathered within resource constraints, and illuminate latent customer needs which might be missed otherwise. Designers will be able to select and interview customers more effectively and better understand and classify the information received in interviews. This improvement is particularly important when the people interviewed view the product need through lenses of different context scenarios, and thus report different and sometimes conflicting needs as a result. This difference in context scenario viewpoint can easily become muddled or go completely unnoticed if the interviewer is not adequately prepared to identify and document contextual information. Second, improved contextual understanding results in better target specifications by illuminating contextual influences on customer preferences for product attribute values. Current techniques prescribe capturing the “voice of the customer,” but provide insufficient guidance on how to translate these data into quantifiable numbers. QFD is an excellent technique to organize and document this conversion; however, even where benchmarking is possible, it is left to the designer to translate the voice of the customer into a meaningful metric and target value. For example, the customer request of “light-weight,” must be translated into a quantity such as mass in kg. Even more difficult than quantifying a target value is the problem of determining appropriate metrics for qualitative needs such as “easy to use” (possibly measured by “number of steps to operate”, and/or “minutes”) or “good beverage taste” (possibly measured by “saturation and bitterness levels”) [14]. The customer may clearly indicate the need for portability, but setting specifications accordingly for mass and volume depends heavily on the context of transportation method and frequency. Third, improved contextual understanding better equips designers to leverage benchmarking data from known contexts in order to design for unknown contexts by understanding how the contextual changes influence customer preferences. Forming design targets has traditionally relied heavily on benchmarking, but this activity can be difficult or impossible in frontier design contexts in which comparable designs are sparse. With an appropriate contextual understanding, product definition information from an accessible and information-rich environment may be intelligently brought to bear upon a frontier and information-scarce context. A product context framework and the concept of a functional family (a group of products which solve the same primary need) will provide the designer with tools to maximize domain cross-over of benchmarking information, intelligently selecting and adapting information from existing products that may exhibit some similarities, but do not occur in the target context. One example is the design of a $100 above-knee prosthetic by a US University for a charity hospital in Kenya [15]. The challenges of accessing and understanding Kenyan customers were partially addressed through local access to US amputees, and properly translating the knowledge gathered into the frontier Kenyan context. 1.3 Cross-Cultural Design in the Literature Understanding and accounting for cultural factors is a classic and major hurdle in frontier design problems. The following sources reference the importance and implications of various cross-cultural factors. Courage and Baxter [16] include a case study by Ann [17], “Cultural Differences Affecting User Research Methods in China” citing numerous cultural differences posing challenges to market research. Differences mentioned include: differing cultural concepts can cause difficulty in translating language without loss of actual concepts; a greater focus on relationships requires more attention to building trust and respecting privacy of the home than in western countries, and the intuitive/subjective mentality vs. the scientific/rational focus of the West can reduce effectiveness of objective and direct interview approaches. The discussion of these differences shows both the challenge and importance of understanding the cultural context. Crawley et al. [18] present the “Design, Development and Marketing of Solar Lanterns” for the rural poor of African countries. They specifically address Kenya, which has a large population without hope of access to electricity in the near future; more than 90% of households use kerosene lighting, and 70% also use scarce cash supplies to buy batteries. Crawley et al. employ focus groups and general discussions to gather information about what customers want in a solar lantern. They note the importance of: (1) picking groups not subjugated by a few dominant members, (2) holding surveys during the day for travel safety of participants, and (3) focusing on individuals with incomes similar to the target customers, who often had significantly different spending patterns than wealthier individuals. The authors note that product development is in general expensive and high-risk for companies in developing countries, and for the new products they design, conventional customer needs gathering techniques are often incomplete and inaccurate in accounting for lifestyles and cultures. Chen et al. [19] advise that when tapping global markets, multinational companies must be wary of segmentation errors on two extremes: attempting to standardize the product for significantly different markets, or excessive customization for essentially similar markets. A balance must be struck which properly accommodates real and important differences, without unnecessarily undercutting economies of scale through standardization. Examples of major differences faced when political and/or cultural boundaries are crossed include: language, ethnic, religious, social structure, tradition, literacy, income patterns, geography and climate, infrastructure, product distribution, advertising, and legal climate. Chen et al. [19] predict that “... multicultural factors are the most difficult issues for organizations to address … [and will be a] future direction in NPD [(New Product Development)].” They address the need for research in this area, commenting “… there are few successful or effective techniques available for the evaluation of multicultural factors in customer requirements.” Chen et al. propose one system employing a laddering technique and radial basis function (RBF) neural network to help overcome multicultural barriers to customer needs gathering. A mobile phone design case study is included. The cultural factors addressed primarily deal with the customer context. Other design researchers also explicitly address the consideration of “culture” in the design process. Culture may be defined as the customary beliefs, values, social forms, and material traits of a group of people that are learned from preceding generations (author’s adaptation from [20]). Ellsworth et al. [21] report on the “effects of culture on refrigerator design.” This paper does not define culture, but references the “needs and values” of customers which differ from place to place. The authors build a case for improved cultural understanding among design engineers, stating that products will be more successful worldwide as design engineers account for cultural needs. The authors propose the development of a Design for Culture (DfX) methodology, citing a lack of attention to the subject evidenced by a dearth of literature and suggesting that cultural considerations must include not only marketing but also design. They suggest studying the use of similar products across different cultures to begin development of such a method. Refrigerators were chosen for this study because they are in widespread use globally and the designs have stabilized with distinct differences in various countries. The paper itemizes a number of macro physical differences (such as volume, energy efficiency, and construction) in refrigerators used in the US, Europe, Japan, and Brazil, and comments on the apparent cultural reasons for these differences. Ellsworth et al. conclude by suggesting the following categories of cultural aspects to account for: aesthetic appeal, cultural habits (e.g. tendency to snack), traditions, available resources, and the physical environment. Donaldson [22,23] proposes various items to improve product design for developing countries, and comments extensively on the particular barriers and problems associated with designing for this context. Some of Donaldson’s findings may be generalize-able to other frontier design contexts. Donaldson, et al. [24] describe Customer Value Chain Analysis (CVCA) as a tool to improve identification of needs and requirements in the product definition phase. One of the case studies is a micro-irrigation pump successfully designed and marketed in Kenya, implicitly illustrating the applicability of the CVCA tool to the complexities of projects in this economy and culture. Donaldson and Sheppard [25] provide detailed observation and analysis of product design practice in Kenya, an example of a “less industrialized economy.” They analyze design practice in the informal sector, the formal sector, and by donor-funded groups. They identify four types of product design: (1) imitated design, (2) imported design, (3) basic original design and (4) specialty design. Donaldson and Sheppard note that virtually all Kenyan products are designed outside the country or are imitations of imports. The local language has no complete equivalent for the verb “to design” and designers and producers typically view “design, sketching, pondering and brainstorming” as an extravagance. No formal design processes such as those defined in design literature were observed in the formal or informal sectors, and NGOs followed semi-formal processes. Economic and political instability along with business monopolies are possible contributors to the lack of attention to customer needs and the associated product definition steps. These findings suggest the continued importance of donor-funded design until the local sectors begin designing products in response to customer needs, and likewise the need for design methodologies applicable in frontier design contexts. Terpenny et al. [26] report Virginia Tech’s inclusion of assistive technology design for developing countries into the first year curriculum to excite engineering students and begin building their global and social consciousness. The work reports that students from diverse backgrounds and interests responded very positively to “international awareness and human centered activities.” Hariharan et al. [27] report two case studies suggesting student engineering design projects in developing countries and “other culturally unfamiliar situations” greatly benefit from “immersive experiences,” such as creating and testing prototypes. (In these cases the prototypes were trials of a new method, rather than trials of a physical product.) The experience of “prototyping” the new method in the target context brought about a shared understanding across disciplines and cultures. These findings suggest the validity in some cases of an “experiencing before understanding” approach. Lewis et al. [28] seek effective engineering design curriculum for developing countries, and thus open a line of research into the different design processes (reverse engineering, specification-based, needs-based, AI) best matched to the different types of design needs (such as product copying, government contracts, consumer products, and mature mass-market products.) Their focus is not so much design for developing countries, but effective design within developing countries. Gordon [29] touches on the cultural nature of design from a sociologists perspective, and the ways in which designed artifacts “design” – or change – the users. This highlights the importance of design engineering possessing a thorough knowledge of users characteristics, beyond interaction with the product to be designed. Gordon additionally notes that division of labor separates the product designer creating meaning in the product from the end user who then attempts, perhaps unsuccessfully, to create apply their own meaning. Cannon and Leifer [30] strongly emphasize the importance of perception or “seeing” in effective design, a skill best learned when students are mentored to ask their own questions rather than being “spoon-fed” exact requirements. Asking the right questions is a key, they suggest, to the vital design skill of judging (and vetting) creative idea alternatives. The overseas product-based-learning course presented stressed cross-cultural issues and enhanced student opportunities to “see” new problem approaches and thus increase innovation. Enderle [31] overviews three NSF funded capstone programs which design devices for persons with disabilities. In all three of the case studies, “problem definition” is lumped in as part of “project selection,” usually involving client interviews. The paper states determining requirements is “one of the most important parts of the design process,” and notes that the process of preparing questions and conducting an interview is very time intensive, and may require follow-up trips. All three of these cases involve significant student contact with the end- user or those representing them. Even though the importance of problem definition is recognized, there is no formal support mentioned to guide students in formulating, asking, and applying relevant interview questions. Although it may be assumed students were given some verbal classroom guidance, an opportunity exists here for formal methods providing guidance on how to conduct a thorough, efficient interview and then translate interview results into requirements. 1.4 “Context” and Design in the Literature Language context adds to word meaning, and in the same way design context adds to productb “meaning” in the eyes of the customer. Therefore designers must understand and account for context in the design process, defined in this paper as: Context – the circumstances or setting in which an object occurs, and which influences its value. Numerous authors reference the influence of context on product design, and many explicitly express its importance. Our previous work [9,10], for example, present empirical studies of the influence of product design usage context on customer preferences. These studies include: exploration of customer needs and attributes of functional product families, customer product choice surveys, and an exploration of how individual factors of a target usage context influence customer preferences for product attributes. The empirical studies of two product families showed that: (1) different context scenarios exist within the same functional family and even the same products, (2) the customers surveyed prefer different products for different context scenarios, and (3) clear relationships exist between context factors and attributes of the preferred products. In summary, customer preferences depend heavily upon product context. Clarkson, et al. [32] report a large-scale study of the UK health system to recommend a design approach to improve patient safety. They report that improving patient safety requires an improved understanding of the context of the health care system. “Without a sound understanding – from a design perspective – of the healthcare services as a complex system of interacting organizations, professions, care environments, procedures and tasks … there can be no certainty that discrete design solutions will contribute to patient safety” (italics added). Sutinen, et al. [33] report results of an empirical study of an IT-based requirements management tool. They map the requirements management process, identify tools and information needed by various participants, and recommend a process for introducing new requirements management tools into the product development process. Among other findings they observe that, “the requirements specifications used in the cases studied could have been enriched by adding requirement context information … and scenarios in order to provide a better understanding of why the requirement is stated” (italics added). Maier and Fadel [34] discuss the consideration of context in choosing design methods. They suggest that the concept of function is well suited to capture design aspects characterized by input/output relationships, whereas the concept of affordance is well suited to describe the more complex relationships involved when the interrelationships among the context of the artifact, designer, and user are taken into account. In other words, the role of contextual information is an important factor in the selection of appropriate design methods. Norman’s classic work [35] enumerates a myriad of design problems in “everyday things” causing them to be very difficult to use successfully. As part of this discussion, Norman gives significant attention to the interactions among objects and users, and offers design guideline “do’s and don’ts.” Many of the difficulties in everyday things described by Norman occur from lack of proper accounting for the context of how and where the products will be used, and the context of who (and with what capabilities) will be using them. Moskal et al. [36] present the development of the Humanitarian Engineering program at the Colorado School of Mines, USA. One of the major program outcomes is that all students b “product or system” is simplified to “product” from this point forward to enhance readability (2,500 impacted as of 2007) would be able to “explain how engineering solutions are impacted by the surrounding economic, environmental and societal context …” (emphasis added.) 1.5 Examples of Context in Design A World Bank meta-study of village stove programs identified 16 major causes of failure (or success) [37]. Eight of these reasons appear to be directly tied to how well context is understood and addressed such as failure to: account for actual conditions of use, resemble the traditional cooking system, accommodate large pieces of wood, or use locally available materials The report highlights the importance of context [37 p. 28]: For assessing consumer needs … determine the existing patterns of stove use … utensils used and food dishes typically prepared …[and] regional requirements. Two guidebooks for persons with disabilities in developing countries illustrate the importance of context [38, 39]. Wheelchairs from wealthy nations are often abandoned in the different contexts of developing countries from a failure to satisfy customer needs. In contrast to wheelchairs commonly seen in the US and Europe, ground level cooking requires a low-riding solution (shown in Table 1), hilly terrain may require a donkey, and rocky terrain requires large wheels. Table 1: Different Mobility Products for Different Contexts [39] Design Need Context Context-Appropriate Product Meals Cooked Low to the Ground Enables Reaching the Pot 1.6 Discussion: Implications of Context for Product Design The previous sections detail the importance of a thorough understanding of design context, especially in cross-cultural or other frontier design situations. This importance is apparent in many literature sources and illustrated in the examples given of village cook stove programs and mobility enabling devices. This information affirms the importance of accounting for contextual factors in order to design products delivering customer satisfaction. Without such contextual understanding, product development teams are at a marked disadvantage to competition that has obtained usage context insights. Just as importantly, in terms of the thesis of this paper, the potential success of student design teams is significantly diminished without an understanding of contextual information, for frontier design problems, but also any design problem given the typical limited experience of higher-education students. Methods for systematically and repeatably developing contextual information are thus needed. Such methods will arm students with a powerful tool in their engineering toolbox. These methods will also increase the potential success of student design projects, providing more rewarding and motivating higher education experiences. 2 The Contextual Needs Assessment Methodology 2.1 Product Design Context Framework Table 2 summarizes a framework for design context reported in prior work [9,10]. The framework sub-categories “how,” “where,” and “who” conveniently organize the new contextual needs assessment method. (1) Usage context factors include the application and environment in which the product will be used such as task frequency, weather, and infrastructure; (2) customer context factors include consumer values, practices, and demographics such as wealth and education level; and (3) market context factors include aspects of competing products. Benchmarking [14] is a well known method to explore the market context, and customer context is partially explored through currently prescribed needs assessment methods. However, even with activity diagram techniques [14], a large gap remains for tools to accurately discover and applying usage context information. Table 2: Product Design Context Categories Category Sub-Category Sample Context Factors “HOW” Application Context • Application task • Usage frequency • Transportation mode • . . . Usage Context (PUC) “WHERE” Environment Context • Infrastructure (e.g. energy supply and cost) • Weather and climate • Maintenance and parts availability • . . . Customer Context “WHO” Customer Context • Physical Abilities • Skills and education • Cost expectations • . . . Market Context • Features of available products • Performance and quality of available products • Cost of available products • . . . 2.2 Contextual Needs Assessment Method Figure 1 summarizes the proposed contextual needs assessment method [7,8]. The method improves task clarification through the formal support of discovering and documenting contextual information in a format readily applied throughout the design process. The method incorporates traditional customer needs methodologies, but extends significantly beyond these by formally incorporating contextual information. Step (1) calls for identification of as many of the relevant contextual factorsc as feasible by utilizing any of the factor identification techniques provided (Table 3, with detail in [8]). Templates are the most basic and powerful technique provided for context factor identification, and a recentd version is given in Appendix A. Step (2) of the method involves translating each factor identified in Step one into the form of one or more questions. Step (3.1) may be fulfilled with established needs elicitation techniques such as c A single characteristic of a product’s usage context. For example, “usage frequency” or “product surroundings.” d Current versions are available electronically from the first author. like/dislike or articulated use. Step (3.2) involves answering the questions generated in Step two through customer interviews or research. Step (4) refers to standard needs aggregation techniques such as affinity analysis. Step (5) involves segmenting the different factor value groups to be addressed by one or more products. 1. Identify relevant contextual factors 2. Generate list of contextual questions to be answered 3. Gather customer needs and factor values 3.1. Gather customer needs 3.2. Gather factor values 4. Aggregate customer needs into weighted list 5. Aggregate factor values into context scenario(s) Figure 1: Contextual Needs Assessment Methodology Table 3: Context Factor Identification Techniques • Use context factor checklists, such as the template provided (Appendix A) • Translate customer needs and product reviews into factors • Translate black box model into factors • Translate activity diagram into factors • Translate available data (e.g. physical characteristics) and experiences • Identify functional family members, noting attribute distinctions The contextual needs assessment methodology facilitates and directs the process of discovering, documenting, and applying contextual information and is easily adaptable to a variety of design needs. The straightforward method provides valuable structure and insight for organizing and driving the needs assessment process, and the templates place the power of contextual assessment in the hands of even novice engineers who are tackling a design need outside of their experience and expertise. More details of the methodology are available [7]. 3 Case 1: Undergraduate Reverse Engineering of Consumer Products 3.1 Design Team Background The University of Texas at Austin Department of Mechanical Engineering undergraduate curriculum includes a senior design methods course followed by a semester of capstone design. Students apply design methods in a semester-long project reverse engineering and re-designing a consumer product. The textbook [14] presents a three-phase design process: (1) task clarification (understanding the re-design need), (2) concept generation, and (3) concept implementation (detailed design and prototyping). In the first phase students use a number of tools to understand the re-design need such as: a mission statement, a checklist of technical questions, and articulated-use or like/dislike customer needs interviews [14,40]. Additionally, students perform reverse-engineering steps such as prediction, product teardown, and functional modeling to identify re-design avenues. Students choose one or two high-priority re-design avenues, based on the understanding gained of the re-design need. Accuracy and completeness of customer needs is critical to maximize the re-design value added to the customer. This design methods course is chosen as a case study in part because students are already learning design methods and are therefore open to learning and implementing a newly developed method. Additionally, since the students are near the end of their undergraduate degree they are a good representation of the design engineers the proposed methodology is intended for. 3.2 Classroom Delivery of the Methodology For this study task clarification lectures from past semesters are augmented with additional steps intended to enhance understanding of the re-design need context. Students are provided the five-step method shown in Figure 2 and an Excel template in which each worksheet tab corresponds to one step of the method. The method would ideally be presented step-by-step in an interactive class lecture format in which each step is illustrated “live.” After each step is partially demonstrated, a completed version of the template in Appendix A would be reviewed in a prepared example and distributed via a courseware website. However, classroom realities limit the time available, so in this case the methodology is reviewed in a single lecture with an emphasis on conceptual understanding of the methodology and detailed exploration left for homework. (Although the study results are very positive, there is also evidence of the need for increased teaching time to improve understanding of the method). Procedure for Gathering Customer Needs & Product Context 1. Brainstorm interview questions: “What do we need to know about Where, How, and Who?” 2. Customize context questions template: add, delete, and modify questions as needed. 3. Interview customers using product in a realistic context: 3.1. Actively question customer during product use, recording “voice of the customer” 3.2. Ask any remaining* questions in the customized context questions template 4. Form customer needs list: Translate voice of customer; combine & prioritize needs 5. Form context scenario by combining context answers to each question [Advanced: Identify distinct context scenarios to address with a multi-product offering] * Note: some questions may already be answered, or may be better answered through research. Figure 2: Contextual Needs Assessment Methodology – Case Study Version 3.3 Methodology Results – Customized Context Questions Fourteen out of 20 design teams volunteered their data for this study. The data submitted are analyzed in detail to assess patterns and insights into how the teams customized the context questions template. A major purpose of this assessment is to glean insight to improve the generalized template (an earlier version of Appendix A) for future use. Virtually all of the customized questions written by the teams take one of the four forms listed in Table 4. Modifications which depart from form #1, although helpful for the team’s specific project, are often not appropriate for a template intended to be generalizable across products and types of design other than reverse engineering and re-design. Dozens of modifications and additions to the general template are derived from careful analysis of the data, and these are incorporated into the updated context questions template provided in Appendix A. More detail is provided in [7], including details of each change made to the template as a result of this case study. Many teams included suggested responses in the wording of questions (e.g. leading questions) to facilitate both correct interpretation and consideration of multiple possibilities. Listing suggested responses in the customized template clarifies the question and can make it more specific to the design problem. The drawback is potentially biasing the interviewee with suggested responses to the point of suppressing an actual response. The use of a scale was included in one team’s data (“rate needed durability on a scale of 1-10”). Such a numerical scale provides some value, and semantic scales hold even greater potential for future work. In the final analysis, design teams found that the questions provided matched their perception of important contextual issues, and new questions introduced are distilled into generalizable form and incorporated into newer versions of the template. Table 4: Four Forms of Context Elicitation Questions 1. Question Form: What is _______ (context factor)? Example: What is the cost & availability of possible energy sources? Analysis: This question is the most basic and direct type, and is the form of almost all of the elicitation questions in the generalized template. 2. Question Form: How satisfactory is the current product for (context factor)? Example: Are you satisfied with how long the current product’s batteries last? Analysis: This question bears similarity to a like/dislike interview technique and in the same way it is most effective when the current product is similar to the future product (as is the case with reverse engineering re-design). 3. Question Form: How will (or does) the future (or current) product interact with the context? Example: What energy sources would you use to power the product? Analysis: This question bears similarity to an articulated use interview, and requires both customer and interviewer to have a clear mutual understanding of the solution being discussed. 4. Question Form: What product attributes are needed in light of (context factor)? Example: How long should the batteries last for jogging? Analysis: Although accurate answers to this question are very valuable, they are often difficult to obtain from customers. Sometimes it is necessary, however, as in the case of customer expectations such as costs. 3.4 Survey Results – Designer Perceptions of the Method An online survey measured designer perceptions of the contextual needs assessment method. The survey reports data on: participant background, perceived value of the methodology and re-use likelihood, and perceptions of the usability and usefulness of the methodology. Survey results for the reverse-engineering class are extremely positive in all aspects. Fifty-seven students responded to the survey, 61% of the class of 94. The survey participants self-reported demographics indicate 84% are male and 16% female with an average age of 22.1 (ranging from 21-31) and an average GPA of 3.4 (ranging from 2.5-4.0). 80% of the students agree they were personally “very involved” in using the contextual needs assessment method. 3.4.1 Perceived Value of Methodology and Re-Use Likelihood Figure 3 shows the perceived value of the contextual needs assessment methodology compared with other “benchmark” methodologies shown in Figure 4. (Students have not used traditional needs assessment methods, so other aspects of design methodology familiar to the students must be used as a comparison.) The figures combined show that the new methodology has an equal or higher perceived value than the benchmark methods shown. Both figures distinguish between perceived value for the respondent’s actual class design project and for a foreign product. The data shows, virtually without exception, that students believe design methodology has even more value for products in a foreign context than for those in a familiar context. The graphs additionally show a level of re-use likelihood averaging between neutral and likely. 0.01.02.03.04.0 (1) Brainstorm Factors (2) Customize Template (3.1) VOC Interview (3.2) Ask Questions (4) Form Needs List (5) Form Scenario Steps 1-5 Combined Actual Product Foreign Product Will Use Again Extremely Valuable High Value Medium Val ue A Little Val ue Zero Val ue Very Likely Likely N eutral UnlikelyVer y Unlikely Figure 3: Experimental Methodology – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood 0.01.02.03.04.0 A: Background research B: Technical questioning C: Mission Statement D: Black Box E: Activity Diagram Steps A-E combined Actual Product Foreign Product Will Use Again Extremely Valuable High Val ue Medium Val ue A Little Val ue Zero Val ue Ver y Likely Likely N eutral UnlikelyVer y Unlikely Figure 4: Benchmark Methodologies – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood 3.4.2 Perceived Usability and Usefulness of Methodology Table 5 presents survey data rating the perceived usability of the contextual needs assessment method. The data show a high level of agreement with all statements related to usability, and neutral agreement on whether the method needs improvement. Table 6 similarly shows a high level of agreement for the perceived usefulness of the method. Table 5: Perceived Usability of Experimental Method Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral / Undecided Agree Strongly agree I understand how to gathe r information using the above method. 0% (0) 2% (1) 2% (1) 81% (46) 16% (9) I like using the above method. e 0% (0) 14% (8) 28% (16) 49% (28) 9% (5) The above method does not need improvement. e 0% (0) 24% (13) 49% (27) 22% (12) 5% (3) The above method is not difficult to understand and use. e 4% (2) 12% (7) 18% (10) 58% (33) 9% (5) e Opposite question asked and responses reversed for consistent data interpretation (better is to the right). Table 6: Perceived Usefulness of Experimental Method Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral / Undecided Agree Strongly agree Using the above method helped me understand the design need. 0% (0) 4% (2) 12% (7) 66% (37) 18% (10) I would consider using the above method again in the future. 0% (0) 0% (0) 14% (8) 68% (39) 18% (10) After using the above method, I do not still feel uncertain about the design need. e 0% (0) 14% (8) 28% (16) 46% (26) 12% (7) Using the above method will/did help our re-design provide better custome r satisfaction. 2% (1) 5% (3) 21% (12) 47% (27) 25% (14) Our re-design will/would not have been the same even without the above method. e 4% (2) 19% (11) 39% (22) 32% (18) 7% (4) I am likely to use the above method again in the future. 0% (0) 2% (1) 25% (14) 59% (33) 14% (8) 3.4.3 Participant Free Response Comments Regarding Methodology The free response comments in the online survey are generally very positive regarding the contextual needs assessment methodology. Sample characteristic responses are listed below, with analysis comments included in italics. • “[The method] really helps in organizing all of the data … It is very effective in identifying our customer needs.” Analysis: Some students commented positively on the effortless organizational structure the template provides. • “I felt like we overdid the contextual information. A lot of questions we developed had no use for the customer. Some but not all data was used for our [customer needs].” Analysis: Perceived redundancies of the method are noted; however the many experts agree needs assessment should give a very thorough coverage due to the high cost of missing needs. • “The method allows for a clear definition of customer needs. Knowing the importance and most vocalized needs helps spotlight the areas of the product that could benefit from redesign.” • “Though it was tedious going through the entire process, I do feel like it ensured the results we were looking for. It would be difficult to make it any more concise.” Analysis: Students may find this method initially very tedious, but will (hopefully) see its benefits later. The free response results also show that some students did not understand or apply the method correctly. The misconceptions evident in their comments suggest that more in-class instruction and instructional materials are needed. It is notable that the survey results were very positive despite these misunderstandings, and plausible that better instruction would lead to even better results and more favorable student perceptions of the method. • “Don't give such a well done template for the context questions. I felt that one of the best parts of the likes dislikes methods was brainstorming questions to ask … So as students when we are given such a defined sheet we loose some of the learning by not thinking of these questions ourselves.” Analysis: This student did not understand that brainstorming questions is part of the method (steps 1 and 2). • “Minimize context questions and let interviewer feel more free to ask questions based on how the interview is flowing.” Analysis: This is a part of the method. The interviewer is encouraged to stray from the context questions for clarification and to probe more deeply. • “The design context process almost needs to be led by the like/dislike method in order to allow the costumer to voice their own thoughts before being prompted by questions.” Analysis: This student did not understand that the method specifies that the like/dislike (or similar) interview technique (step 3.1) should be used prior to the context questions (step 3.2). 3.5 Conclusions from Case 1 Case 1 demonstrates that within an undergraduate reverse engineering setting, the contextual needs assessment methodology can be realistically deployed and well received, and result in significant improvement in needs assessment. Data analysis identifies eight new context factors and eighteen question revisions to improve the generalized template. Survey results show students rated the contextual needs assessment methodology of medium-high value for their product and high value for a foreign product, comparable to the perceived value of benchmark methodologies such as a black box and activity diagram. The majority of students rate the proposed methodology as usable and useful. Free response comments are favorable towards the method, but reveal misunderstandings indicating the need for more thorough teaching. 4 Case 2 Synopsis: Graduate Original Design of Assistive Devices 4.1 Design Team Background The second case study is conducted within the graduate Product Design and Prototyping class at the University of Texas at Austin, which culminates with students delivering fully functional prototypes to local “customers” with physical disabilities. Projects require the novel synthesis of $100-$300 of low to medium technology, follow the product development process [14] taught in the class. For example, the switch activated ball thrower (Figure 5) is a portable device enabling students with limited mobility, strength, and coordination to participate in ball throwing activities integrated with their peers [41]. Since 1994, over twenty teams from UT Austin have presented at the annual RESNA conference as winners of the international student design competition [42]. Figure 5: Switch Activated Ball Thrower [41]. The contextual needs assessment method was delivered for the graduate prototyping class in essentially the same way as for the undergraduate reverse engineering course (Figure 2). The graduate class is divided into three teams of 5 to 6 students each, and all three teams submit their contextual needs assessment data for the study. The three projects included: (1) fold clean laundry for storage (with portability and switch activation), (2) automatically provide a rocking motion to a chair to sooth students with cerebral palsy, and (3) provide multi-sensory rehabilitative stimulation when activated by visually impaired students in a classroom. 4.2 Methodology and Survey Results – Customized Questions and Designer Perceptions Similar to the reverse engineering undergraduate teams in Case 1, virtually all the customized template questions in the Case 2 study take one of the four forms listed in Table 4. Again modifications which departed from form #1, although helpful for the specific project, were often not appropriate for a template intended to be generalizable across a variety of design projects. Dozens of modifications and additions to the general template are derived from careful analysis of the data, and these are incorporated into the updated context questions template provided in Appendix A. More detail is provided in [7], including details of each change made to the template as a result of this case study. An online survey measures designer perceptions of the contextual needs assessment method, essentially identical to the survey discussed in Section 3.4 . The survey data include: participant background, perceived value of the methodology and re-use likelihood, and perceptions of the usability and usefulness of the methodology. Similar to Case 1, survey results for Case 2 are extremely positive in all aspects. Most respondents and their teams were “very involved” in using the contextual needs assessment method. Data shows participants have a high level of previous design experience and virtually all believe in the importance of design in both education and engineering practice. 4.2.1 Perceived Value of Methodology and Re-Use Likelihood Figure 6 shows the contextual needs assessment methodology has equal or higher perceived value than the standard “benchmark” methodologies shown in Figure 7. Both figures distinguish between perceived value for the respondent’s actual class design project and the perceived value for a foreign product. The data shows virtually without exception that students believe design methodology has even more value for products in a foreign context than for those in a familiar context. The graphs additionally show a level of re-use likelihood averaging between neutral and likely. 0.01.02.03.04.0 (1) Brainstorm Factors (2) Customize Template (3.1) VOC Interview (3.2) Ask Questions (4) Form Needs List (5) Form Scenario Steps 1-5 Combined Actual Product Foreign Product Will Use Again Extremely Valuable High Value Medium Value A Litt le Value Zero Val ue Ver y Likely Likely N eutral UnlikelyVer y Unlikely Figure 6: Experimental Methodology – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood 0.01.02.03.04.0 A: Background research B: Technical questioning C: Mission Statement D: Black Box E: Activity Diagram Steps A-E combined Actual Product Foreign Product Will Use Again Extremely Valuable High Val ue Medium Val ue A Little Val ue Zero Val ue Ver y Likely Likely N eutral UnlikelyVer y Unlikely Figure 7: Benchmark Methodologies – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood 4.2.2 Perceived Usability and Usefulness of Methodology Table 7 presents survey data rating the perceived usability of the contextual needs assessment method. The data shows a high level of agreement with all statements related to usability, and neutral agreement on whether the method needs improvement. Table 8 similarly shows a high level of agreement for the perceived usefulness of the method. Table 7: Perceived Usability of Experimental Method Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral / Undecided Agree Strongly agree I understand how to gathe r information using the above method. 0% (0) 0% (0) 6% (1) 69% (11) 25% (4) I like using the above method. f 0% (0) 0% (0) 6% (1) 62% (10) 31% (5) The above method does not need improvement. f 6% (1) 19% (3) 62% (10) 12% (2) 0% (0) The above method is not difficult to understand and use. f 0% (0) 0% (0) 19% (3) 69% (11) 12% (2) Table 8: Perceived Usefulness of Experimental Method Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral / Undecided Agree Strongly agree Using the above method helped me understand the design need. 6% (1) 0% (0) 6% (1) 69% (11) 19% (3) I would consider using the above method again in the future. 0% (0) 0% (0) 12% (2) 50% (8) 38% (6) After using the above method, I do not still feel uncertain about the design need. f 0% (0) 12% (2) 6% (1) 75% (12) 6% (1) Using the above method will/did help our re-design provide better custome r satisfaction. 0% (0) 0% (0) 19% (3) 69% (11) 12% (2) Our re-design will/would not have been the same even without the above method. f 0% (0) 6% (1) 62% (10) 19% (3) 12% (2) I am likely to use the above method again in the future. 0% (0) 0% (0) 12% (2) 69% (11) 19% (3) 4.2.3 Participant Free Response Comments Regarding Methodology The free response comments in the online survey are very positive regarding the contextual needs assessment methodology. Not surprisingly, the responses from graduate students performing original design were more positive than responses from the undergraduate students re-designing more familiar consumer products. Sample characteristic responses are listed below, with analysis comments included in italics. • The method is very effective at capturing customer/design needs in frontier design scenarios and was heavily used by my team to build the basis of our entire customer interview activities. f Opposite question asked and responses reversed for consistent data interpretation (better is to the right). • I feel very confident that we asked all the questions we needed, due in large part to having such a complete checklist. • This method is extremely effective. If I had only used the like/dislike method my team would have very little information about the customer needs of our product. The like/dislike method is very difficult to use when designing a very innovative and different product. • This method helps us gather the data for the frontier design [context] easily; in a normal design method it will take a lot of interviews to get the data. Some criticisms of the contextual needs assessment method and suggested improvements are as follows: • … this method is very good [and efficient], but it takes a lot of time … • There’s the assumption that the customer knows what he needs. • At times what a customer communicates [is inaccurate] … observation and interaction point those discrepancies out and can be useful in the design process. Analysis: This is a classic weakness of customer self-reported information. The articulated-use portion of the interview prescribes observation when feasible, but this is limited to observing the environment when no comparable product exists. • … some customers who do not think of a product in such detail … tend to get annoyed or bored. Analysis: Some teams prioritize questions and adapt the list to the customer’s attention span. • Brainstorming questions … after an initial discussion with the customer … may facilitate forming a much more effective questions template. • I think the method should involve the manufacturing part of the design process too. • [Provide] more generic context questions … to capture an even wider sphere of customer/design needs. [Provide further guidance] in generation of specific questions for peculiar design needs from the [template]. Analysis: Increasing the breadth of the template is one result of these case studies, and continues as future work. • Most times when the customer is asked to give quantitative values … the values are very [far from practical]. It is always better to perform such interviews … using an existing product or compare the expected values with some analogous product … Analysis: This is an important avenue for future work, and can be addressed in large part by the development of semantic inquiry scales. 5 Conclusions and Call to Action The case studies in this paper provide strong quantitative and qualitative support for the usability, usefulness, and designer acceptance of the proposed contextual needs assessment method. The case studies further illustrate application of the method, and provide data for continued improvement of the usefulness and generality of the method. Table 9 summarizes the outcomes of the two case studies discussed here. Case 1 demonstrates that within an undergraduate reverse engineering setting, the contextual needs assessment methodology can be realistically deployed and well received, and result in significant improvement in needs assessment. Survey results show students rated the contextual needs assessment methodology of medium-high value for their product and high value for a foreign product, comparable to the perceived value of benchmark methodologies such as a black box and activity diagram. The majority of students rate the proposed methodology as usable and useful. Free response comments are favorable towards the method, but reveal misunderstandings indicating the need for more thorough teaching. Case 2 demonstrates very similar results to Case 1 for graduate teams performing original design in a frontier context. These case study results provide strong justification for continued improvement and applications of the methodology leading towards widespread dissemination in education as well as in field practice. Table 9: Case Study Outcomes Summary Case Study Outcomes Case 1: UT Reverse Engineering Assessment of designer perceptions of usefulness, usability, and re-use likelihood Æ validation of method in undergraduate reverse engineering application Analysis of template customization Æ template revisions to increase usefulness and generality Case 2: UT Assistive Technology Assessment of designer perceptions of usefulness, usability, and re-use likelihood Æ validation of method in graduate original frontier design application Analysis of template customization Æ template revisions to increase usefulness and generality Although many exciting avenues for future expansions remain, the methodology is already well suited for widespread implementation. The overwhelmingly positive student reviews and quantitative data from the case studies demonstrate the contextual needs method is not only classroom-ready, but also project-ready. As data is catalogued from a variety of institutions employing the method in varied project domains, the growing knowledgebase (database) can rapidly and effectively be transferred across projects and teams to continue improving the application of engineering design to frontier design contexts. The teaching materials and templates used in the case studies proved effective; however, the survey data also suggests that additional teaching would significantly improve performance of the methodology. Further, instructional materials customized to the unique needs of humanitarian design teams from organizations such as Engineers for a Sustainable World, Engineers without Borders, and Engineering Ministries International have an important role to play. The materials should include a data reporting mechanism (serving as an input to the data archiving discussed in the previous paragraph) and foster a community of collaboration. This community might loosely follow the example of the open source software community in which every individual may contribute, and central organization and quality control are provided (as in the case of Red Hat Linux). The methodology should be made accessible to those who need it and will build upon it through the appropriate publication outlets. To foster this community, a web repository will archive the most recent general templates along with completed project templates to facilitate information re-use. Acknowledgements The authors would like to recognize the contributions of Julie Linsey’s work on systematic methods and tools for innovative and efficient conceptual design, with particular focus on design-by-analogy. The work reported in this document was made possible, in part, by the National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship program, the University of Texas at Austin College of Engineering, a grant from the National Science Foundation, and the Cullen Trust Endowed Professorship in Engineering No. 1. Any opinions, findings, or recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors. References 1 M. Lima and W.C. Oakes, Service-Learning: Engineering in Your Community. 2006: Great Lakes Press. 2 E. Tsang, Projects That Matter: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Engineering. 2001: American Association for Higher Education. 3 F.T. Duda. Experiences with Identifying Senior Level Engineering Design Projects to Meet Developing Country Needs. in Proceedings of the 4th Christian Engineering Education Conference (CEEC). 2002. Montreal, Canada. 4 M.G. Green, et al. 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Orlando, FL. 42 Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America Homepage. [accessed 2008 Aug.]; Available from: http://www.resna.org. Appendix A: Context Questions Template v3.0 – One-Page Reference Version HOW: Usage Application WHERE: Usage Environment WHO: Customer Characteristics a0 task application What specific purpose(s) will product be used for? How will the product be used? e0 surroundings Where and in what type of surroundings will product be used? What in the surroundings might influence what the product must be like? c0 user Who will use the product? (Choose it? Buy it?) What user characteristics affect what the product must be like? a1 task function What major function(s) should the product provide? e1 surroundings (sound) How noisy are product surroundings? How much noise from the product is acceptable? c1 user skills & education How skilled/experienced is the user with the task? What is the user's education level? a2 task quality What quality of the primary function is needed? e2 weather/ climate What weather/climate will product be exposed to? c2 physical ability Does the user have any physical conditions that may cause difficulty performing the task? (strength, control, range-of-motion, vision). a3 task process What is the current usage process? How will product change the current usage process? e3 environment ruggedness What objects and substances will product interact with? Will product be exposed to any unusual substances or conditions? c3 user tolerance for complexity What is the most complex product the user is comfortable using? Must this product be less complex? How long is user willing to spend learning the product? a4 task frequency How often will product be used? e4 space (when in use) How much space is available for using product? c4 relevant customs and practices Are there any cultural practices or expectations related to this product? a5 task duration How long will product be used each time? e5 space (storage) How and where will product be stored? How much space is available for storing product? c5 cost expectations: (purchase) About how much is the buyer willing to pay to purchase this product? a6 task quantity How much quantity of the product's output is needed? At what rate should the product perform? e6 aesthetics of surroundings What do the product surroundings look like? How should the product interact w/ the surrounding aesthetics? c6 cost expectations: (operation) How much is the user willing to pay/work monthly to operate this product? a7 task ruggedness How roughly will product be handled/treated? e7 maintenance & parts cost & availability What is the cost & availability of maintenance & parts? c7 cost expectations: (maintenance) How much is the user willing to pay/work monthly to maintain this product? a8 transportation type & amount How often, how far, and in what way will product be transported? e8 energy availability & cost What is the cost & availability of possible energy sources (human, battery, gas, electric, biomass)? c8 time expectations: setup & operation About how much time is the user willing to spend to setup this product? To operate this product? How valuable is saving time? a9 operator position What physical position will the user be in (standing, sitting, hands occupied)? c9 safety expectations What product safety concerns does the user have? What safety features is the user expecting? What dangers must be avoided? What is the most dangerous product familiar to the user? Must this one be less dangerous? a10 cleaning How and where might the product be cleaned? c10 durability expectations How long does the user expect the product to last? c11 purchase context Where and how might the product be purchased?How would the buying decision be made (research, referral, impulse)? Biographical Sketch Matthew Green, LeTourneau University MATTHEW G. GREEN is an assistant professor of Mechanical Engineering at LeTourneau University, Longview. His objective is to practice and promote engineering as a serving profession, with special recognition of opportunities to improve the quality of life for people with physical disabilities and in developing countries. Topics include the design of affordable transportation, training engineers to design for marginalized populations, needs assessment in frontier design environments, assistive devices for persons with disabilities, and remote power generation. Contact: MatthewGreen@letu.edu. Daniel Jensen, U.S. Air Force Academy DAN JENSEN is a Professor of Engineering Mechanics at the U.S. Air Force Academy. He received his B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. from the University of Colorado at Boulder. He has worked for Texas Instruments, Lockheed Martin, NASA, University of the Pacific, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab and MacNeal- Schwendler Corp. His research includes development of innovative design methodologies and enhancement of engineering education. Carolyn Seepersad, University of Texas-Austin CAROLYN CONNER SEEPERSAD is an assistant professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. She received her PhD in mechanical engineering in 2004 from the George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology as a Hertz Fellow and a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellow. She received a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from West Virginia University in 1996, a B.A. in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics from Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar in 1998. Her research is focused on collaborative design of products and materials, multi-scale design, topology design, and robust design. Kristin Wood, University of Texas-Austin KRISTIN WOOD is the Cullen Trust Endowed Professor in Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Mechanical Engineering. Dr. Wood’s current research interests focus on product design, development, and evolution. The current and near-future objective of this research is to develop design strategies, representations, and languages that will result in more comprehensive design tools, innovative manufacturing techniques, and design teaching aids at the college, pre-college, and industrial levels. Contact: wood@mail.utexas.edu. Caption Summary Figure 1: Contextual Needs Assessment Methodology................................................................ 10 Figure 2: Contextual Needs Assessment Methodology – Case Study Version ............................ 11 Figure 3: Experimental Methodology – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood.......................... 13 Figure 4: Benchmark Methodologies – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood........................... 14 Figure 5: Switch Activated Ball Thrower [41]. ............................................................................ 17 Figure 6: Experimental Methodology – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood.......................... 18 Figure 7: Benchmark Methodologies – Perceptions and Re-Usage Likelihood........................... 18 Table 1: Different Mobility Products for Different Contexts [39] ................................................. 8 Table 2: Product Design Context Categories.................................................................................. 9 Table 3: Context Factor Identification Techniques ...................................................................... 10 Table 4: Four Forms of Context Elicitation Questions................................................................. 12 Table 5: Perceived Usability of Experimental Method................................................................. 14 Table 6: Perceived Usefulness of Experimental Method.............................................................. 15 Table 7: Perceived Usability of Experimental Method................................................................. 19 Table 8: Perceived Usefulness of Experimental Method.............................................................. 19 Table 9: Case Study Outcomes Summary .................................................................................... 21 CITATIONS (25) REFERENCES (48) ... A base teórica compreendeu os temas: Tecnologia Assistiva (BLASCO;GRAY, 2016;SPECK;STEEL et al., 2014;GRAY, 2013;FEDERICI;SCHERER, 2012;GREEN;et al, 2009), Gestão de Design (ME- RINO, 2016;BERSCH, 2013;PICHLER et al, 2016), Gestão Visual de Projetos (KASALI;NERSESSIAN, 2015;SIBBET, 2013;KOCK;et al, 1996) e Gestão/Desenvolvimento de Projetos (PERSAD;et al, 2007;ROZENFELD, 2006;AUSTIN et al, 2001). A partir desta base teórica, foram identificados 4 passos principais envolvendo as etapas 1 (Levantamento de Dados) e 2 (Organização e Análise de Dados) em projetos de TA, as quais foram denominadas: Preparar, Levantar, Converter e Analisar. ... ... A base teórica compreendeu os temas: Tecnologia Assistiva (BLASCO;GRAY, 2016;SPECK;STEEL et al., 2014;GRAY, 2013;FEDERICI;SCHERER, 2012;GREEN;et al, 2009), Gestão de Design (ME- RINO, 2016;BERSCH, 2013;PICHLER et al, 2016), Gestão Visual de Projetos (KASALI;NERSESSIAN, 2015;SIBBET, 2013;KOCK;et al, 1996) e Gestão/Desenvolvimento de Projetos (PERSAD;et al, 2007;ROZENFELD, 2006;AUSTIN et al, 2001). A partir desta base teórica, foram identificados 4 passos principais envolvendo as etapas 1 (Levantamento de Dados) e 2 (Organização e Análise de Dados) em projetos de TA, as quais foram denominadas: Preparar, Levantar, Converter e Analisar. ... ... No passo 'Preparar' , o objetivo é selecionar e organizar os procedimentos a serem adotados na coleta de dados com o público alvo do projeto, por isso, encontra-se no início da etapa 1 -Levantamento de Dados. Neste passo, as decisões envolvem: o que coletar (quais dados eu preciso do usuário), como coletar (quais procedimentos ou equipamentos vou utilizar) e com quem coletar os dados (definir os sujeitos para realizar a coleta dos dados) (MERINO, 2016;GRAY, 2016;STEEL et al., 2014;GREEN;et al, 2009). ... Conjunto de ferramentas (Toolkit) para o Levantamento, Organização e Análise de dados em projetos de Tecnologia Assistiva. Chapter Full-text available * Oct 2018 * Rosimeri Franck Pichler * Giselle Schmidt Alves Díaz Merino O projeto de Tecnologia Assistiva apresenta desafios como: volume de dados, articulação da equipe e gestão do projeto. Assim, o objetivo é incorporar um Toolkit para projetos de TA em uma metodologia projetual (GODP), auxiliando na gestão das etapas de levantamento, organização e análise de dados com equipes multidisciplinares. A partir do levantamento teórico, foram definidos 4 passos (Preparar, Levantar, Converter e Analisar), e propostas 4 ferramentas e 1 manual de Instruções. Como contribuições à TA, a incorporação do Toolkit, pode facilitar a coleta de dados com usuários PCD e sua utilização no desenvolvimento do projeto. View Show abstract ... No desenvolvimento de projetos de TA, a atenção para as capacidades e limi- tações do indivíduo, seu contexto de uso e demandas do produto, compreendem um processo complexo, envolvendo um grande volume de dados que precisam ser coletados, analisados e utilizados pelas equipes multidisciplinares na obtenção de soluções mais adequadas (PICHLER et al, 2016). Neste sentido, alguns autores propõem modelos que visam contemplar estes itens (usuário, contexto, atividade e TA) no processo de desenvolvimento do projeto, a saber: o Software USERfit (ABASCAL;) que propõe um ambiente colaborativo de projeto e se baseia no levantamento de informações sobre o usuário, a tarefa e o ambiente; o método NIMID (BLASCO;), que permite a identificação das necessi- dades do usuário, da tarefa e do ambiente, utilizando a linguagem e classificação proposta pela CIF (Classificação Internacional de Funcionalidade) a fim de en- corajar a colaboração entre os membros da equipe de projeto; o NARA (SMITHJACKSON;) que propõe um quadro guia ao processo de análise das necessidades do usuário e o estabelecimento de requisitos de projeto; e o método Contextual Needs Assessment (GREEN;) que visa facilitar a identifica- ção das necessidades do usuário baseado em perguntas gerais sobre o contexto de uso (como, onde e quem). ... ... A base teórica compreendeu os temas: Tecnologia Assistiva (BLASCO;GRAY, 2016;SPECK;STEEL et al., 2014;GRAY, 2013;SCHERER, 2012;GREEN;, Gestão de Design (MERINO, 2016;BERSCH, 2013;PICHLER et al, 2016), Gestão Visual de Projetos ( KASALI;NERSESSIAN, 2015;SIBBET, 2013;KOCK;et al, 1996) e Gestão/De- senvolvimento de Projetos (PERSAD;ROZENFELD, 2006;AUSTIN et al, 2001). A partir desta base teórica, foram identificados 4 passos principais envolvendo as etapas 1 (Levantamento de Dados) e 2 (Organização e Análise de Dados) em projetos de TA, as quais foram denominadas: Preparar, Levantar, Con- verter e Analisar. ... ... No passo 'Preparar' , o objetivo é selecionar e organizar os procedimentos a serem adotados na coleta de dados com o público alvo do projeto, por isso, en- contra-se no início da etapa 1 -Levantamento de Dados. Neste passo, as decisões envolvem: o que coletar (quais dados eu preciso do usuário), como coletar (quais procedimentos ou equipamentos vou utilizar) e com quem coletar os dados (de- finir os sujeitos para realizar a coleta dos dados) (MERINO, 2016;GRAY, 2016;STEEL et al., 2014;GREEN;. ... Contribuições do Design Gráfico na sua elaboração de Manual de instrução para uso de cadeiras de rodas motorizadas Chapter * Sep 2018 * Camila Medina * Cassia Domiciano * Luis Paschoarelli * Fausto Medola As cadeiras de rodas motorizada (CRMs) são tecnologia assistivas destinadas à pessoas que não conseguem utilizar cadeiras de rodas de propulsão manual. Os manuais de instrução das CRMs devem apresentar conteúdo gráfico e textual que facilitem o uso do produto pelos usuários. Este estudo avaliou manuais de instrução de cinco CRMs disponibilizadas pelo SUS em seus aspectos gráficos e textuais. Os resultados apontam deficiências no conteúdo gráfico (fontes pequenas, alinhamento inadequado, entre outros) e textual (p.e. sentenças negativas, texto corrido). A partir desta demanda, são apresentadas recomendações para o design desses manuais de instrução sob a ótica do Design Gráfico. View Show abstract ... Empathising with users is either a direct or indirect common goal for many need-finding and user-study techniques such as contextual need analysis, journey maps and personas (Brown, 2008;Camburn et al., 2017;Chasanidou et al., 2015; (DI) Learning Modules, 2021; Green et al., 2009Green et al., , 2005Green et al., , 2006Green et al., , 2004Tushar et al., 2020). Moreover, products, services, or systems that enhance end-user interactions have proved to be successful in the market Saunders et al., 2011). ... ... Contextual enquiry is a vital part of any user-centric design process, especially as a tool to gather user satisfaction with any PSS. Contextual Need Analysis (CNA) helps understand how users' interaction with a PSS would vary according to the use conditions or circumstances (Green, 2005;Green et al., 2009Green et al., , 2008Lauff et al., 2021). This quality makes CNA an ideal tool for extreme-user experiences since the contexts of use can enable or disable users. ... Designing with the Extreme-user Experiences Engineering Product Development Thesis Full-text available * Aug 2021 * Sujithra Raviselvam * Kristin Lee Wood Extreme-user experiences have a unique potential to enhance designer creativity by altering one’s perception of their own designs. This shift in perception is achieved by incorporating the perspectives of extreme-users who experience the latent unmet needs among the rest of the population and have the potential to inspire design professionals. Works in the past have observed this potential (as the extreme-users) among the older adult users and users with reduced physical or cognitive abilities for the products, services, or systems (PSSs) that primarily target the mainstream general population users. While simulated experiences that emulate reduced physical and cognitive abilities are adopted to improve designers’ understanding of the needs among such extreme-users, they are seldom applied beyond the realms of assistive and inclusive design solutions, especially as a tool for design creativity. Therefore, there is an opportunity to advance creativity in mainstream PSSs design by systemic adoption of extreme-user experiences. In this thesis, we empirically test the underpinnings of extreme-user experiences and simulated extreme-user experiences for design creativity. We also analyse the necessity and impact of a systematic guided approach using extreme-user inspired design methods that inform designers of the experiences that would enhance the usability of their PSSs design. We finally present a framework that proposes four stages that one could adopt to design with extreme-user experiences. Additionally, we discuss the interactions between the Design Innovation (DI) process model and the proposed Extreme-user Experience Design Framework with which we aim to stretch the frontiers of the mainstream design process. View Show abstract ... According to Plos et al. (2012), the Most papers related to AT innovation are specific to the design phase of the product, as a mean to pursue innovation. We identified activities regarding Universal Design (Björk, 2009;De Couvreur & Goossens, 2011;Riley, 2009), Design for context (Green, Jensen, Seepersad and Wood, 2009), Instructional Design (Filatro & Piconez, 2004), Inclusive Design (Dewsbury, Rouncefield, Clarke and Sommerville, 2004), Universal Design for Learning (Hall, Meyer and Rose, 2012;Messinger & Marino, 2010), Product Ecosystem (Tobias, 2007), Design centered on the user (Burton, Reed and Chamberlain, 2011;Czarnuch & Mihailidis, 2011;Dewsbury et al., 2004;Green et al., 2009;Messinger & Marino, 2010) and Design related to politics and education (Boone & Higgins, 2007;Messinger & Marino, 2010;Riley, 2009;Wattenberg, 2004). ... ... According to Plos et al. (2012), the Most papers related to AT innovation are specific to the design phase of the product, as a mean to pursue innovation. We identified activities regarding Universal Design (Björk, 2009;De Couvreur & Goossens, 2011;Riley, 2009), Design for context (Green, Jensen, Seepersad and Wood, 2009), Instructional Design (Filatro & Piconez, 2004), Inclusive Design (Dewsbury, Rouncefield, Clarke and Sommerville, 2004), Universal Design for Learning (Hall, Meyer and Rose, 2012;Messinger & Marino, 2010), Product Ecosystem (Tobias, 2007), Design centered on the user (Burton, Reed and Chamberlain, 2011;Czarnuch & Mihailidis, 2011;Dewsbury et al., 2004;Green et al., 2009;Messinger & Marino, 2010) and Design related to politics and education (Boone & Higgins, 2007;Messinger & Marino, 2010;Riley, 2009;Wattenberg, 2004). ... Opportunities and Challenges on Assistive Technology Innovation: a Systematic Literature Review on People with Disabilities Article * Jan 2016 * Fabio Santana * Ivo Rodrigues Montanha Junior * Marcio F Catapan * Fernando Forcellini View ... In between data collection for the no-function condition, participants studied the engineering design process generally learning about product opportunity gaps [56] and customer needs assessment [57,58]. Material on functional modeling or functional decomposition was intentionally delayed until after the study for the no-function condition. ... Functional Modeling Supports System Representation Article * Jun 2023 * Alexander R. Murphy * Henry Banks * Robert L. Nagel * Julie Linsey Understanding how engineers formulate and evolve mental models holds the potential to inform the development of materials that benefit systems thinking. A first step toward realizing this benefit is measuring and assessing change in mental models following educational interventions. In this work, engineering students' mental models are elicited of common household products before and after learning functional modeling and are compared to the mental models of students' who do not learn functional modeling. Results show statistically significant improvements in mental model representations on all three given systems after the functional modeling intervention, whereas no significant differences were found for students who did not learn function. Further, results show statistical improvements in identification of system components common to three systems and higher mental models scores for participants with prior experience disassembling the product. Taken together, these results suggest that functional modeling likely supports the ability to communicate knowledge, retrieve knowledge, and/or interpret existing mental models of engineered systems providing a foundation for systems understanding and communication. As we improve our understanding of how students form, change, and communicate their mental models of engineered systems, educators can shape curricula to facilitate the skills necessary for the comprehensive systems understanding that is important for professional engineers and designers. View Show abstract ... Empathizing with users is either a direct or indirect common goal for many need-finding and userstudy techniques, such as contextual need analysis, journey maps and personas ((DI) Learning Modules, 2021;Brown, 2008;Camburn et al., 2017;Chasanidou et al., 2015;Green et al., 2009Green et al., , 2006Green et al., , 2004Green et al., , 2005Tushar et al., 2020). Moreover, products, services, and systems that enhance end-user interactions have proved successful in the market Saunders et al., 2011). ... Extreme-user conditions to enhance design creativity and empathy- application using visual impairment Article * Jan 2022 * Sujithra Raviselvam * Dongwook Hwang * Bradley Camburn * Kristin Lee Wood Extreme-users who experience physical, sensory or cognitive challenges can help identify latent needs across a majority of the general population users. Identifying these latent needs may open doors to novel products, services, and systems. Empathic design techniques of simulation tools and scenarios allow designers to experience a range of extreme-user perspectives. However, research still lacks a thorough understanding of the potential impact of such techniques, especially their potential to uncover and address latent needs. This paper strengthens the understanding of simulation tools and scenarios by analyzing two user-centered workshops that applied simulated scenarios to empathize with users with visual impairments (VIs), and uses an empathic similarity metric to evaluate the empathic outcomes in conjunction with self-evaluated empathy. In addition to empathy, creativity is measured for the concepts shared by 36 (x2) workshop participants and 13 participants with VIs. Empirical analysis of the results, across two sequences of controlled studies, supports the potential of simulated scenarios in evoking participant creativity and empathy. View Show abstract ... Although most of the articles are related to specific SL projects, the main difference between both categories was that the first one does not include the name or title of the project. General/SL results included, among others, the following topics: general views of Engineering for Developing Communities (EDC), which integrated social needs into the engineering courses and proposed new courses where SL was implemented (Bielefeldt et al., 2005;Ropers-Huilman et al., 2005;Duffy et al., 2007;Dukhan and Schumack, 2009;Green et al., 2009;Lucena et al., 2010;Hayden et al., 2011;Vernaza et al., 2012;Whitman and Mason, 2013;Balascio, 2014;Hayford et al., 2015;McLean et al., 2018); the technology integration framework for SL (Salam et al., 2019); studies to analyze the impact of the experience on students, faculty, and/or the affected communities (Mehta and Enger, 2004;Bauer et al., 2005;Zoghi and Pinnell, 2005;Banzaert et al., 2006;Schaffer et al., 2007;McCormick et al., 2008McCormick et al., , 2010Duffy et al., 2009;Huyck et al., 2009;Swan and McCormick, 2009;Paterson, 2010;Wiggins et al., 2011;Reynaud et al., 2013;Love et al., 2014;Armstrong et al., 2019); attitude toward SL between male and female students (Tsang, 2001;Thompson et al., 2005;Tucker et al., 2013;Lens and Dewoolkar, 2015); analysis of ethics, civic, and social responsibility (SR) attitudes through SL (Williams, 2002;Zoltowski et al., 2013;Bielefeldt and Canney, 2014) and classroom discussions and critical reflection articles integrated into the ABET assessment plan (Newbolds et al., 2017); specific programs, such as EPICS program, designed for the integration of undergraduate engineering students from different engineering disciplines and from different educational levels, and SL incorporation throughout a College of Engineering (Service-Learning in Civic Education, SLICE) from University of Massachusetts Lowell, which is integrated into the mandatory first-year curriculum and has as its goal to serve as an introduction to engineering design for freshmen with limited technical backgrounds in engineering (Oakes et al., 2001;Immekus et al., 2005;Dutta and Haubold, 2007;Burack et al., 2008;Foster and Spivey, 2012;Cummings et al., 2013;Underwood, 2013); and others. ... Assessment Methods for Service-Learning Projects in Engineering in Higher Education: A Systematic Review Article Full-text available * Jul 2021 * Marián Queiruga-Dios * María Jesús Santos * Miguel Angel Queiruga * Araceli Queiruga-Dios Service-learning (SL) helps engineering students to be involved in community activities and to be motivated by their studies. Although several reviews and research studies have been published about SL, it is not widespread in sciences and engineering at the university level. The purpose of this research is to analyze the different community services or projects where SL is implemented by engineering students and faculty and to identify the procedures that were usually implemented to assess SL-based courses and activities. Assessment could be considered as the evaluation of a specific module and the engineering competencies, the evaluation of the effectiveness of the SL program, the assessment of the participation of the student in those programs, and the assessment of whether students have achieved certain outcomes or gained specific skills. We conducted a systematic review with a search in three scientific databases: Scopus, Science Direct, and ERIC educational database to analyze the assessment methods and what that assessment covers. From 14,107 publications related to SL, 120 documents were analyzed to inform the conclusions of this study. We found that SL is widely used in several universities as experiential education, and it is considered an academic activity. The most widely used assessment technique is a survey to evaluate the engagement and attitudes of students and, to a lesser extent, teamwork presentations. View Show abstract Design Innovation Methodology Handbook – Embedding Design in Organizations Article Full-text available * Jun 2021 * Carlye Lauff * Wee Yu Hui * Kenneth Teo * Kristin Lee Wood The Design Innovation Methodology Handbook represents a contribution to our design journey. This handbook was developed by a number of contributors from the United States and Singapore. Through a co-creation effort and common interests to innovate together, the intent is to make a difference for all persons in our communities and society. Readers are provided with a meaningful and practical guide, reference booklet, and living document in which to engage Design Innovation at the apex of Design Thinking and Systems Thinking, and beyond. Appreciation is conveyed to all of the contributors in developing this handbook. We sincerely hope that this guide will inspire and embolden all readers and partners to push the the boundaries of human-centered systems innovation across ones entire portfolio and strategic plan. In doing so, the future will be bright, and we will have an impact beyond anything we can imagine or foresee. We wish you the very best as you embrace your personal Design Innovation journey. To Design Innovation, and Beyond!! View Show abstract Design Innovation (DI) Methodology Handbook - Embedding Design in Organisations ISBN: 978-981-18-1207-1 Book Full-text available * Jun 2021 * Carlye Lauff * Wee Yu Hui * Kenneth Teo * Kristin Lee Wood The Design Innovation Methodology Handbook represents a contribution to our design journey. This handbook was developed by a number of contributors from the United States and Singapore. Through a co-creation effort and common interests to innovate together, the intent is to make a difference for all persons in our communities and society. Readers are provided with a meaningful and practical guide, reference booklet, and living document in which to engage Design Innovation at the apex of Design Thinking and Systems Thinking, and beyond. Appreciation is conveyed to all of the contributors in developing this handbook. We sincerely hope that this guide will inspire and embolden all readers and partners to push the the boundaries of human-centered systems innovation across ones entire portfolio and strategic plan. In doing so, the future will be bright, and we will have an impact beyond anything we can imagine or foresee. We wish you the very best as you embrace your personal Design Innovation journey. To Design Innovation, and Beyond!! View Show abstract Design Innovation (DI) Methodology Handbook - Embedding Design in Organisations ISBN: 978-981-18-1207-1 Book Full-text available * Jun 2021 * Carlye Lauff * Wee Yu Hui * Kenneth Teo * Kristin Lee Wood The Design Innovation Methodology Handbook represents a contribution to our design journey. This handbook was developed by a number of contributors from the United States and Singapore. Through a co-creation effort and common interests to innovate together, the intent is to make a difference for all persons in our communities and society. Readers are provided with a meaningful and practical guide, reference booklet, and living document in which to engage Design Innovation at the apex of Design Thinking and Systems Thinking, and beyond. Appreciation is conveyed to all of the contributors in developing this handbook. We sincerely hope that this guide will inspire and embolden all readers and partners to push the the boundaries of human-centered systems innovation across ones entire portfolio and strategic plan. In doing so, the future will be bright, and we will have an impact beyond anything we can imagine or foresee. We wish you the very best as you embrace your personal Design Innovation journey. To Design Innovation, and Beyond!! View Show abstract Show more Product-Based Learning in an Overseas Study Program: The ME110K Course Article Full-text available * Jan 2001 * Int J Eng Educ * David M. Cannon * Larry John Leifer Experience in a foreign country has long been considered a vital Part of a well-rounded education. Engineering students, though, seem to have been considered an exception; many students and educators see such experience as being unnecessary, or an unaffordable luxury given the large number of subjects that are required in the undergraduate curriculum. Stanford University has made a commitiment to making overseas study available to as many students as possible, including those who don't traditionally participate, A prime example of that effort is found in the Spring quarter Stanford Center for Technology and Innovation, a program held at its A Kyoto, Japan overseas campus, targeted specifically (it students in engineering and science programs. Required courses are made available through videotape, live discussion, and such, with the support of on- and off-site professors and teachers' assistants. Expanding on this, we have begun an overseas design project course, aimed ultimately at fulfilling the ABET capstone design course requirements for upper-level engineering students. In this paper we report briefly on the first iteration of the course, taught in the Spring quarter of 1998 in collaboration with Prof. Itsuo Ohnaka of Osaka University Students in the course teamed up to work on design projects sponsored by four Japanese companies. Because of this unique setting, it was possible to educate the students about the influence of culture on design, creativity, perception of needs; about conventional and unusual approaches to teamwork; and about often culture-dependant assumptions about what criteria an acceptable solution must possess. Studying design in such a foreign context, we have found, can be an extraordinary, eye-opening experience, enabling students to better see the context of their future work, especially as more and more it-ill take place in a global arena. The course was taught again in the Spring of 2000, and included students from Osaka University in the project teams. As of this writing, preparations are underway to carry it out again in the Spring of 2001 in Kyoto and Berlin overseas campuses, with further enhancements. View Show abstract Approaches to Product Design in Kenya: Is Design Practice Universal? Conference Paper Full-text available * Jan 2004 * Krista Donaldson * Sheri D. Sheppard Design discussions and debates tend to be focused in and on more industrialized economies (MIEs). In this paper, product design approaches in Kenya are investigated and questions relating to the universality and applicability of design process are explored. Data on informal sector, formal sector and donor-funded design were analyzed in the context of interviews with local producers. Emerging patterns of detailed design acquisition resulted in the delineation of four observed approaches to the design of common-use products in Kenya: imitated design, imported design, basic original design and specialty design. Of the 200+ products examined, a negligible number might be considered original designs targeted specifically at the local market. Most designs originate outside the country or are imitated from imported products. The approaches to product design and findings regarding design activity are discussed with comment made regarding the appropriateness of the MIE-style model to design in less industrialized economies. View Show abstract Computer Support for Requirements Management in an International Product Development Project Conference Paper Full-text available * Jan 2004 * Krister Sutinen * Göran Gustafsson * Johan Malmqvist Requirements management is a challenging task. For complex products, many thousands of requirements need to be managed, i.e. initially set, allocated, changed, verified etc. An approach to solving this problem is to use IT-based requirements management tools. The paper presents an empirical study of the application of such a tool in an international defense material development project through participation in the project team as well as through interviews, with the aim to observe and explain the use and utility of the tool. The requirements management process in the product development project has been mapped out through the adoption of a qualitative system approach, and by using multiple information sources, such as project documentation, interviews and project participation. More specifically, we have identified different actors’ needs for tools and information, and the process of introduction, training and utilization of a requirements management tool. The findings are presented, analyzed and discussed with respect to the factors that underlie the observed phenomena. Finally, guidelines are presented for how to introduce requirements management tools in product development projects. View Show abstract Global Engineering And The Liberal Arts Conference Paper * Jun 1998 * Steve Vanderleest * Edward G. Nielsen View Service-Learning: Engineering in Your Community Book * Jan 2014 * Marybeth Lima * William Oakes View A selection of sociologies: The sociology of work Conference Paper * Jan 2003 * Int J Eng Educ * CC Gordon This paper will examine the role of the social in design Practice. In aid of understanding and enacting that role, it will examine the kinds ofsociology that could be involved in design practice and education. Topics considered include the fundamentally social and cultural nature of design, and the of design to the sociologies of work, science and technology, organisations, education, and culture. View Show abstract An Overview of the National Science Foundation Program on Senior Design Projects to aid Persons with Disabilities Article * Jan 1999 * Int J Eng Educ * John Enderle This paper provides an overview of the National Science Foundation (NSF) Senior Design Projects to Aid Persons with Disabilities program. In 1988. the NSF started to provide a mechanism whereby student engineers at universities throughout the United States designed and constructed devices for persons with disabilities. This program combined the academic requirement of a design experience with enhanced educational opportunities for students, and improved the quality of life for disabled individuals. Students and university faculty provided, through their normal ABET accredited senior design class, engineering time to design and build the device or software, and the NSF provided funds, competitively awarded to universities, for supplies, equipment and fabrication costs for the design projects. Described in this paper are some experiences at several universities in this program and an annual publication that describes all of the projects carried out in this initiative. View Show abstract The Design of Everyday Things Book * Jan 1990 * Donald Arthur Norman View Integrating Service Oriented Design Projects In The Engineering Curriculum Conference Paper * Jun 2002 * Matthew G. Green * Alan Dutson * Kristin Lee Wood * Dan Mcadams Engineering curricula are undergoing continual advancements. Faculty seek to apply new techniques and strategies to interest students, to address their diverse backgrounds, and to achieve a balance between theory and practical, hands-on applications. One area of advancement is project-centered education. To provide students with realistic applications, projects are being used as an instructional vehicle. The extent of the projects depends on the type of course, ranging from support projects in analytical courses to backbone projects in design courses. No matter where a course falls in this range, a key question in project-centered curricula is the type of projects that should be used. In this paper, we propose a service-oriented strategy for choosing projects. This strategy provides a number of advantages to students and faculty. These advantages are described in the context of basic implementation principles and four case studies. Results are shown for an undergraduate design methods course, an undergraduate capstone design course, two graduate-level product development courses, and a Masters of Science research project. Introduction Project-centered education is becoming an emphasis of many engineering curricula. As part of this emphasis, unique opportunities exist to expose our students to a variety of design or open-ended projects. Service projects, or those that emphasize human need, represent one such opportunity. According to the NSPE Engineers' Creed, Professional Engineers are called upon to "place service before profit … and the public welfare above all other considerations." In this spirit, it is possible to create successful service projects that directly benefit a number of groups in our society: those marginalized by disasters, persons with disabilities, and the rural poor of developing countries. In the US, nearly 10% of the population copes with a severe disability 1 . Worldwide, many national economies have led to lifestyles with persons struggling for physical survival on a daily basis. A coarse measure of the distribution of technology indicates one-third of our world's population lacks access to electricity 2 . Engineering curricula should acknowledge these abundant opportunities for service-oriented design projects in our increasingly global society, and seek reliable methods for delivering and realizing such projects with our students. This paper presents four approaches exemplifying the integration of human need projects into student design work. These approaches are: (1) an undergraduate design methods class in which teams design new concepts, such as a heat exchanger for medical relief teams; (2) an undergraduate capstone design class in which students deliver a working prototype, such as a wheelchair positioning unit; (3) two graduate prototyping classes in which students deliver a working prototype, such as an assistive lock-opener for persons with physical disabilities; and (4) an MS thesis research program for developing countries, with such projects as a handbook for View Show abstract Effects of Product Usage Context on Consumer Product Preferences Conference Paper * Jan 2005 * Matthew G. Green * Junjay Tan * Julie Linsey * Kristin Lee Wood We present a framework for understanding product usage context and its impact upon customer needs and product preferences. We conduct customer interviews with two sets of representative products from the functional families of “mobile lighting” and “food boiling” products. Customer interviews lead to identification and characterization of distinct product usage contexts. Interactive surveys measuring customer product choice support the hypothesis that customer product preferences differ for each usage context identified. Further analysis shows that attributes of these chosen products are related to factors of the usage context (e.g. mass is related to transportation mode). These results demonstrate that valuable insight for product design is available through an understanding of usage context, and future work will refine and test methods to formally bring contextual information to bear on product design. These capabilities will be especially important for contexts in which needs assessment has traditionally been difficult, such as with latent needs and frontier design environments. 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View post Conference Paper DESIGN FOR FRONTIER CONTEXTS: CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT OF A NEW DESIGN METHODOLOGY WITH HUMANITARIAN APP... June 2006 * Matthew G. Green * Julie Linsey * Carolyn C Seepersad * [...] * Kristin Lee Wood A new design method for frontier contexts is given a classroom assessment. The method adds the formal consideration of the design context to traditional customer needs assessment. Testing under both controlled and classroom conditions shows the new method is extremely effective, easy to use and well received by students. Implementation at three US schools has shown positive results signifying ... [Show full abstract] broad applicability in education as well as field practice. Here we present the essence of the method, results of testing and examples. Read more Article Full-text available ENABLING DESIGN IN FRONTIER CONTEXTS: A CONTEXTUAL NEEDS ASSESSMENT METHOD WITH HUMANITARIAN APPLICA... * Matthew G. Green Not available Mechanical Engineering View full-text Conference Paper Full-text available FRONTIER DESIGN: A PRODUCT USAGE CONTEXT METHOD August 2006 * Matthew G. Green * Julie Linsey * Carolyn C Seepersad * [...] * Dan J. Jensen The need exists to develop foundational knowledge, methods, and tools to equip engineers in discovering, documenting, and acting upon contextual information important for successful product design. In response to this need, this paper addresses a gap in current design methodologies which inadequately support accounting for contextual information. Formally accounting for contextual information is ... [Show full abstract] especially challenging when the design context is frontier (unfamiliar) to the designers, as is often the case with high human-need projects. Based on a classification framework, literature search, and empirical study, a contextual needs assessment methodology is developed to assist the designer in discovering and documenting the "how," "where," and "who" factors of the context framework. Experimental assessments and an application of the approach to an inventive product provide quantitative and qualitative measures of the usability, usefulness, and designer acceptance of the proposed contextual needs assessment method. These exciting results provide strong justification for the widespread dissemination of the methodology in education as well as in field practice. View full-text Conference Paper EFFECTS OF PRODUCT USAGE CONTEXT ON CONSUMER PRODUCT PREFERENCES January 2005 * Matthew G. Green * Junjay Tan * Julie Linsey * [...] * Kristin Lee Wood We present a framework for understanding product usage context and its impact upon customer needs and product preferences. We conduct customer interviews with two sets of representative products from the functional families of “mobile lighting” and “food boiling” products. Customer interviews lead to identification and characterization of distinct product usage contexts. Interactive surveys ... [Show full abstract] measuring customer product choice support the hypothesis that customer product preferences differ for each usage context identified. Further analysis shows that attributes of these chosen products are related to factors of the usage context (e.g. mass is related to transportation mode). These results demonstrate that valuable insight for product design is available through an understanding of usage context, and future work will refine and test methods to formally bring contextual information to bear on product design. These capabilities will be especially important for contexts in which needs assessment has traditionally been difficult, such as with latent needs and frontier design environments. Read more Discover the world's research Join ResearchGate to find the people and research you need to help your work. Join for free ResearchGate iOS App Get it from the App Store now. Install Keep up with your stats and more Access scientific knowledge from anywhere or Discover by subject area * Recruit researchers * Join for free * Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login PasswordForgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login PasswordForgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? 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