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LEONARDO DA VINCI


REMBRANDT


FRANCISCO DE GOYA


PIERRE-AUGUSTE RENOIR


VINCENT VAN GOGH


EDVARD MUNCH


ALPHONSE MUCHA


WASSILY KANDINSKY


RAPHAEL


SANDRO BOTTICELLI


TITIAN


DONATELLO


ALBRECHT DURER


HIERONYMUS BOSCH


JAN VAN EYCK


VERMEER


CARAVAGGIO


ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI


PETER PAUL RUBENS


DIEGO VELAZQUEZ


PIETER BRUEGEL


GIAN LORENZO BERNINI


CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH


JMW TURNER


EUGENE DELACROIX


EDGAR DEGAS


BERTHE MORISOT


MARY CASSATT


CAMILLE PISSARRO


EDOUARD MANET


FREDERIC BAZILLE


PAUL CEZANNE


HENRI ROUSSEAU


FRANZ MARC


GUSTAV KLIMT


HENRI DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC


AUBREY BEARDSLEY


HENRI MATISSE


PAUL KLEE


EDWARD HOPPER

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by Tom Gurney
Tom Gurney BSc (Hons) is an art history expert with over 20 years experience
Published on June 19, 2020 / Updated on October 14, 2023
Email: tomgurney1@gmail.com / Phone: +44 7429 011000


CREATIVITY IS AN INTRINSIC PART OF BEING HUMAN. WHILE EVERY ANIMAL EXPERIENCES
EMOTIONS, NO OTHER ANIMAL HAS THE ABILITY TO EXPRESS HOW IT THINKS, FEELS AND
SEES THROUGH THE CREATION OF WORKS OF ART.

Our ability to visualise and create is thousands of years old. It is sobering to
remember that the magnificent art of the Palaeolithic, which represents the
oldest form of human creativity, has been known for just two centuries.

Until the 1830s, art was considered to be the invention of civilised humans,
beginning with the Greeks, falling into barbarism with the Dark Ages at the end
of the Roman Empire, and re-emerging with the Renaissance.

The art of earlier civilisations such as ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, even
though intriguing and highly developed, was viewed as more primitive than that
of Hellenic culture. The Greeks laid the foundations of art as we understand it,
or so it was argued. See also the Seven Wonders of the World.

The artefacts of the Palaeolithic were not entirely unknown. People had been
finding worked stone arrowheads and spearheads for centuries, often attributing
them to the work of supernatural beings such as fairies or speculating that they
fell from the sky when there was a thunderstorm.

Then, in 1833, a French physician named François Mayor discovered and made
drawings of some engraved and decorated antlers which were attributed
immediately to the Celts, since this was a period of great interest in the
pre-Roman peoples of western Europe, most of whom were designated "Celtic".


THE SHOCK OF THE OLD

In fact, Mayor had recorded the first examples of Palaeolithic art. Even greater
glories were to come with the discoveries of the magnificent paintings of
Altamira and Lascaux, which depicted animals such as bison and horses that
looked as fresh and vibrant as if they were created days earlier. As the
antiquity of these works began to be appreciated, the effect was shocking.

Old beliefs regarding time and space were falling into the abyss; the universe
was unimaginably vast, the earth unimaginably old, and humans had been creating
art for thousands of years. The oldest cave art, recently discovered, is
Indonesian, and dates back over 40,000 years.



Beautiful, mysterious and clearly the work of talented artists, the cave
paintings captured the imagination of the public. What was their meaning? Why
were they created? After two centuries of research, investigators now believe
the European cave paintings, and corresponding early art from all over the
world, represent the strivings of the human imagination to comprehend its
environment.

They are not static art works; they were probably the focal point of other
activities, using fire along with sound and movement to create a collaborative
experience that would contribute to a sense of community and magical control
over the environment.

The themes of beauty and functionality were therefore established long before
the philosophy of William Morris (“Have nothing in your houses that you do not
know to be useful, or believe to be beautiful.”) The art of ancient Egypt,
beginning with the uniting of the two lands in 3100 BCE, also seems mysterious
and magical, yet was essentially functional.

Egypt was long credited as having been given “nine measures of magic” at the
dawn of time, leaving all other cultures only one tenth to share between them.
Magic was a vital aspect of existence, permeating every area of life, just as
the River Nile brought life-giving black silt to fertilise the ground annually.
Heka, the Egyptian word for magical power, provided additional dimensions to the
two-dimensional paintings and reliefs on the walls of temples and tombs.

When the tomb-owner and his wife and family were represented as sitting in front
of a giant feast, with vessels of wine or beer and fowl and legs of beef stacked
high in front of them, it was Heka that restored them to reality in the
afterlife. Perspective was less important than showing people, animals and
objects in as complete a form as possible.

Therefore if the viewer looks closely, they will see the impossibility yet
practicality of Egyptian art; humans have faces that are viewed in profile, yet
eyes that are viewed as if from the front; their chests are seen as though from
the front and their legs from the side, with both arms visible. What matters is
that they should be depicted as holistically as possible.

It was a view that was reflected in the art of the embalmer, who replaced
missing fingers, toes, limbs or eyes with various substitutes to make the dead
complete again.

Egyptian art was practical. It permitted the dead to enjoy eternity in an
afterlife ruled by Osiris, god of the dead, in a land that looked like the real
Egypt, but without any pain, labour or deprivation; in other words, a
preternaturally real Egypt.



As time passed, more naturalistic themes emerged, creating artworks representing
a vision of life in the real Nile valley that still astonish the viewer today.
Colourful butterflies and realistically depicted insects settle on plants, fish
swim in the cool depths of the river, rulers ride in chariots to war or the
hunt, and workers cut the barley in the fields to make bread and beer.


A SELECTION OF FAMOUS PAINTINGS FROM THE HISTORY OF ART

LAMENTATION

FALLEN ANGEL PAINTING

WANDERER ABOVE THE SEA OF FOG

IVAN THE TERRIBLE AND HIS SON


SEMI-DIVINE RULERS AND THE HARMONY OF HEAVEN AND EARTH

Egypt in the days of pyramid building was still essentially a stone age culture,
ruled by semi-divine kings whose massive monuments have survived to this day.
The theme of the ruler who is part divine, part human, continued to develop
throughout bronze age Egypt and most of the ancient world.

Many monuments and reliefs were dedicated to the elite as ruling intermediaries
between heaven and earth. They were essential to the continuing triumph of order
over chaos, an idea that is expressed in the art of many cultures again and
again. As time passed, ordinary people began to acquire concepts that were
previously only available to the elite, such as the idea of life after death.
These themes were reinterpreted in their own tombs.

Until European explorers set out across the oceans and discovered new cultures,
views on the nature of art were those of the known world, encompassing the
Mediterranean, north Africa, Syria, Anatolia, Persia, and eventually, northern
Europe and Scandinavia. However, the magical power of art was not confined to
these regions.

From China to the cultures of South America, magical art and artefacts were
produced for semi-divine rulers to ensure not only their own existence in the
afterlife, but also the continuance of cosmic harmony in the world of the
living. Magic, the gods and their relationship with humans were expressed in art
and architecture for both the living and the dead.

Images or symbols of supernatural beings are common to the art of all cultures,
from the Inuit to aboriginal Australians. Art could function as a literal
memorial, a memory system that reminded those who saw it of people, places,
journeys and events. Sacred games such as bull leaping on Crete and the ritual
ball games of South America have also provided inspiration for art.

The art of pre-colonial north America has its own mythologies and pantheons of
divine and semi-divine beings. The massive sculpture of Hindu temples revealed
the complex lives of the gods, while tiny statues of household deities, in many
cultures representing ancestral figures, protected the families that worshipped
them. Until modern times, societies did not compartmentalise art as a separate
activity. It was entangled with every other aspect of life and death.


GREEK ART AND THE HUMAN FORM

With the rise of Greek culture in the first millennium BCE, the focus turned to
more natural expressions of human and divine forms. For the Greeks, the gods
were superhuman beings who could be represented as just that – supremely
powerful, yet recognisably human.

What remains of many ancient cultures today, particularly statuary, does not
give a true indication the original impact of the art. Statues were brightly
painted. Art was a vibrant experience, elevating the natural to supernatural. It
was a vital part of communication between this world and other realms. Art was
the language of the gods.



In later times in Egypt, when there was much Greek, and subsequently Roman,
settlement, hybrid forms of art combining Greco-Roman and Egyptian elements
developed. The most famous examples are the Fayum portraits, haunting encaustic
works of art that were used to cover the faces of mummies.

They gaze from the wrappings, realistic images of people painted in the prime of
life who now remind the observer of its brevity. We owe our scant knowledge of
some of the beliefs of the Scythians to talented Greek goldsmiths, who created
works specifically for the Scythian market north of the Black Sea.

These remarkable pieces, now in collections in Ukraine and Russia, show the
clothing and horses of the Scythians and hint at their religious and magical
beliefs. Where cultures meet, there has always been syncretism, the uniting of
different beliefs and deities. The same was true for art.


IMPERIAL ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Imperial art was the hallmark of the Roman period, with the emphasis on the
power and authority of emperors, many of whom were also generals. They were
still depicted as semi-divine beings in the statuary that was erected in the
inner sanctuaries of their temples from Britain to Egypt and beyond.

The wealth and multi-cultural nature of the empire also meant that artists had
the opportunity to experiment. Domestic settings had their own forms of art
which included statuary, mosaics and practical items such as pottery. Thanks to
the preservation of cities such as Pompeii and Herculaneum after the calamitous
eruption of Vesuvius, wall paintings revealing both the sacred and the secular
in Roman life can still be seen.

Yet various art forms had flourished for centuries in Europe and north Africa
before the arrival of Roman rule. We know less about these people because they
were not literate societies. However, they speak to us through their art,
telling the observer of their talents in metalworking and enamel, creating
beautiful and functional items for everyday use from horse harness decoration to
buckets and weaponry.

Styles that predate the Romans continued long after the end of Empire, to change
once more as they came under new influences. The swirls and spirals of ancient
European art underlie the rich symbolism of Celtic Christianity.


RELIGION AND ART

All religions, whether the mainstream religions of the world or local belief
systems, make use of some form of art to express meaning and belief. Only
fundamentalism denies the creative in religion. Depictions of the natural world,
or formalised and geometric representations of natural forms as in Islamic art,
can reveal aspects of the nature of God to the believer.

The Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, have provided
inspiration for much of the world’s art. Yet so too have personal beliefs,
represented in the art of household shrines from Africa to the Americas. The
nature of the religion reflects the nature of its art.



Western European art has been heavily influenced by Christianity, with both the
western and eastern Roman empires, Rome and Byzantium, being the original
storehouses. The movement of Christianity across Europe can be mapped through
the art and artefacts of each region, from the Lindisfarne Gospels to images of
the Three Kings at Cologne.

Early medieval times, once known as the Dark Ages, were far from dark. In the
ancient centres of the world such as Cairo, art and architecture still
flourished, while in Ireland the Celtic Church produced glorious art that
reveals a level of skill that is hard to match even today.


THE RENAISSANCE: THE ENTHRONING OF ART

The Renaissance is often seen as representing not only the restoration of the
principles of the art of classical antiquity, but also the maturing of art
forms. Perhaps the true triumph of the Renaissance is its harmonisation of
sacred and secular themes. Much of Renaissance art was inspired by – and
financed by - powerful wealth-creating families and individuals.

Renaissance artists frequently expressed the authority of these influential
personages through the use of religious themes and imagery. The most audacious
of these works of art is Benozzo Gozzoli's "Journey of the Magi to Jerusalem"
which is essentially a “who was who” of the court of Lorenzo the Magnificent,
represented as the entourage of the Three Wise Men.

The Renaissance also marked the beginning of scientific thought, with the
visionary works of Leonardo da Vinci and his experiments with anatomical
drawing. Even as the Renaissance flourished, the seeds of religious and secular
change were being planted, particularly in northern Europe.



The art of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries depicted powerful rulers and
monarchs, displayed in rich settings and frequently on horseback. In the
seventeenth century, secular rulers and soberly dressed merchants began to have
their own portraiture as well, reflecting their increasing wealth and influence.
See also the sculpture of Donatello.


TOWARDS THE MODERN ERA

After 1600, the history of art is one of increasing secularisation and
specialisation. Portraiture of the aristocracy continued, as, for example, in
the eighteenth century images of English Thoroughbred breeders and their horses.
Different styles began to emerge, including more realistic scenes of everyday
life and ordinary people, as well as idealised pastoral imagery.

European settlement in America and Australia brought new approaches and
expansive themes, such as those of the Hudson River School. Art became a
double-edged weapon; it could be used as a means of shared communication with
other cultures yet could also be used for propaganda and imperialist ideology.

The increasing industrialisation of the nineteenth century brought greater
dislocation and paradoxically greater freedom for artists. The idea of the
artist creating his or her own vision without the need for a patron marked a
major shift. Artists felt increasingly free to experiment, with the work of the
Impressionists providing a leading example. Other schools, such as the
Pre-Raphaelites, looked to the past, away from the ugliness of modern industrial
production.


MODERN AND POSTMODERN ART

Rather than fearing or hating the modern world, modern artists embraced it. Long
before John Brunner coined the phrase "shock-wave rider" to describe those who
would have to adapt to the shock of emerging technologies, modern artists surfed
the flood of new ideas.

Art was no longer about maintaining the establishment, but about the free
exchange of emotions, thoughts and ideas. It was a means of personal and
political expression. The separation of the establishment, and more importantly,
religion, from art was viewed as liberating. Artists were now genuinely the
avant-garde; they led the way to the new by example, knowing that change was
essential.

Art became a revolutionary act, and while artists embraced the new, they did not
worship its every aspect. Picasso's Guernica is rightly held up as one of the
most significant works of the twentieth century: angry, moving and ultimately
demanding a call to action. As post-modern artists continue to fashion their own
personal and political responses to the world, they remind those who observe
their work of the one common artistic thread through time: the vision of the
artist.


ARTICLE AUTHOR



Tom Gurney in an art history expert. He received a BSc (Hons) degree from
Salford University, UK, and has also studied famous artists and art movements
for over 20 years. Tom has also published a number of books related to art
history and continues to contribute to a number of different art websites. You
can read more on Tom Gurney here.

FAMOUS PAINTINGS

 * Lamentation
 * Fallen Angel
 * Wanderer above the Sea of Fog
 * Ivan the Terrible and his Son
 * Saturn Devouring His Son
 * The Desperate Man
 * Praying Hands
 * Scream
 * Hell
 * The Boulevard Montmartre at Night

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