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MICROSTRUCTURES OF COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
This section displays photo micrographs of commercially important and/or
metallurgically interesting copper and copper alloys and processings.
To view each alloy group, simply click on the links below:
Copper & High Copper AlloysBrasses & BronzesOther Copper AlloysSpecial Coppers
Cadmium Copper
Beryllium Copper
Chromium Copper Brasses
Silicon Brasses
Tin Brasses
Leaded Brasses
Phosphor Bronze
Aluminum Bronzes Copper Nickels
Nickel Silvers
Copper Titanium
Copper Tins
Leaded Coppers Grain Size Comparison
MICROSTRUCTURES - AN OVERVIEW
WHAT IS A MICROSTRUCTURE?
Metals are crystalline when in the solid form. The crystal structure of a solid
metal refers to the internal structure or arrangement of the atoms in an
ordered, repeating, three dimensional pattern. Normal metallic objects are
polycrystalline, which means they consist of an aggregate of many very small
crystals. These crystals are called grains. Some metallic objects, such as
castings, have very large grains that can be resolved with the naked eye and
these structures are referred to as macrostructures. Typically, the grains of a
metal object are very small, and can not be viewed with the naked eye. The
structural features of the small grains are observed using an optical microscope
or metallograph, or an electron microscope, at magnifications greater than 100
times. Structures requiring this range of magnification for their examination
are called microstructures.
WHY IS THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL IMPORTANT?
The most important aspect of any engineering material is its structure. The
structure of a material is related to its composition, properties, processing
history and performance. And therefore, studying the microstructure of a
material provides information linking its composition and processing to its
properties and performance. Interpretation of microstructures requires an
understanding of the processes by which various structures are formed. Physical
Metallurgy is the science which provides meaningful explanations of the
microstructures, through understanding what is happening is inside a metal
during the various processing steps. Metallography is the science of preparing
specimens, examining the structures with a microscope and interpreting the
microstructures.
The structural features present in a material are a function of the composition
and form of the starting material, and any subsequent heat treatments and or
processing treatments the material receives. Microstructural analysis is used to
gain information on how the material was produced and the quality of the
resulting material. Microstructural features, such as grain size, inclusions,
impurities, second phases, porosity, segregation or surface effects, are a
function of the starting material and subsequent processing treatments. The
microstructural features of metals are well defined and documented, and
understood to be the result of specific treatments. These microstructural
features affect the properties of a material, and certain microstructural
features are associated with superior properties.
WHAT IS MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS USED FOR?
Macrostructural and microstructural examination techniques are employed in areas
such as routine quality control, failure analysis and research studies. In
quality control, microstructural analysis is used to determine if the structural
parameters are within certain specifications. It is used as a criterion for
acceptance or rejection. The microstructural features sometimes considered are
grain size, amount of impurities, second phases, porosity, segregation or
defects present. The amount or size of these features can be measured and
quantified, and compared to the acceptance criterion. Various techniques for
quantifying microstructural features, such as grain size, particle or pore size,
volume fraction of a constituent, and inclusion rating, are available for
comparative analysis.
Microstructural analysis is used in failure analysis to determine the cause of
failure. Failures can occur due to improper material selection and poor quality
control. Microstructural examination of a failed component is used to identify
the material and the condition of the material of the component. Through
microstructural examination one can determine if the component was made from
specified material and if the material received the proper processing
treatments. Failure analysis, examining the fracture surface of the failed
component , provides information about the cause of failure. Failure surfaces
have been well documented over the years and certain features are associated
with certain types of failures. Using failure analysis it is possible to
determine the type of stress that caused the component to fail and often times
determine the origin of the fracture.
Microstructural analysis is used in research studies to determine the
microstructural changes that occur as a result of varying parameters such as
composition, heat treatment or processing steps. Typical research studies
include microstructural analysis and materials property testing. Through these
research programs the processing - structure - property relationships are
developed.
WHAT IS METALLOGRAPHY?
Metallography is the study of the structure of metals. It includes the
techniques used to prepare specimens for examination, examining the specimen and
interpreting the structures. Specimen preparation is an important part of
metallography. A specimen must be appropriately prepared to ensure correct
observation and interpretation of the microstructure. Specimen preparation
consists of sample selection, sectioning, grinding, polishing, and etching.
Adequate sample selection provides a statistically reliable description of the
material quality. The number, location and orientation of the samples examined
are important parameters in sample selection. Sectioning, grinding and polishing
are used to prepare a flat specimen with a mirror like finish. Care must be
taken during sample preparation not to introduce artifacts which lead to invalid
microstructure interpretations. Sometimes it is beneficial to examine the
specimen in the as polished condition. The as polished condition is useful for
examining the microstructures of materials whose constituents exhibit large
differences in light reflectivity after polishing. Porosity and inclusions are
examples of features that are easily observed in the as polished condition. But
most materials are etched to reveal the microstructure. Etching is a controlled
corrosion process resulting form electrolytic action between surface areas of
different potential. Etching reveals the microstructure of a material by
selective dissolution of the structure. Specimens are then examined using
optical and electron microscopes. There are also many other techniques used to
characterize the structure of metals, but this article will concentrate on
microstructural characterization.
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