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> FAQ about Diplomacy

a

ARE CYBER DIPLOMACY AND DIGITAL DIPLOMACY EQUIVALENT TERMS?



They can often be interchanged. There are however some patterns emerging in
their usage. Cyber diplomacy is used more to refer to diplomatic activities
related to cyber security issues. There is more confusion about digital
diplomacy being used to implement digital foreign policy (new topics in
diplomatic agenda) and the use of new tools in diplomatic practice like social
media, websites and online meeting platforms.

It is possible to avoid confusion in the current, transitory phase of
terminology settling.

– The evolving geopolitical ENVIRONMENT for diplomacy: impact of digital
technology on sovereignty distribution of power, and global interdependence
among other issues.

– The emergence of new TOPICS in diplomatic agenda: cybersecurity. internet
governance, e-commerce, online human rights, and more than 50 other policy
topics.

– Use of new TOOLS in diplomatic practice: social media, AI, big data, online
meetings, virtual and augmented reality.

You can read more on terminological confusion and other aspects of digital
diplomacy. 


a

HOW SHOULD GOVERNMENTS PREPARE FOR THE METAVERSE?


The future of the metaverse is still not clear. Facebook has the network,
financial and technical capabilities to make this happen. The government should
be ready to address data protection, cybersecurity, digital identity, and other
digital policy issues. These issues need to be addressed in a way that balances
“real” reality (physical), virtual realities, and augmented realities.

a

IS DIGITAL DIPLOMACY DIFFERENT FROM CYBER/E/NET/TECH/ONLINE DIPLOMACY?


It all comes down to semantics and context usage. These prefixes are frequently
used in interchangeable ways. It is crucial to determine if a specific usage of
cyber diplomacy/digital diplomacy or even e-diplomacy refers only to digital
geopolitics, topics, or tools. You can learn more about different usages of
prefixes in digital diplomacy.

a

IS ONLINE DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION PERMITTED?



The Vienna convention (1961) on diplomatic relations does not specify how
countries will be represented. They are typically represented in another country
by an embassy or other types of diplomatic missions. However, there are many
other options available such as rowing (nonresident Ambassadors). Online
diplomatic representation can be considered legal. It is yet to be seen if this
practice will increase in popularity over the next few years.


a

IS SCIENCE DIPLOMACY A FORM OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY?


Some approaches subsume science diplomacy under public diplomacy. In this sense,
science diplomacy is about winning hearts and minds; it is about creating a
positive image of one’s country. For clarity, let us look at a definition of
public diplomacy. According to the USC Center on Public Diplomacy (CPD), it is
defined as ‘the transparent means by which a sovereign country communicates with
publics in other countries aimed at informing and influencing audiences overseas
for the purpose of promoting the national interest and advancing its foreign
policy goals. […] The concept of soft power coined by international relations
scholar Joseph Nye has, for many, become a core concept in public diplomacy
studies. Nye defines soft power as “the ability to get what you want through
attraction rather than coercion or payments”‘. From this description and the
examples on this page, we can see that science diplomacy is much more than
public diplomacy and the one should not be reduced to the other. Having said
this, it is important to recognise that for many countries, and in particular
the USA, the practice of science diplomacy often has strong elements of public
diplomacy.

a

IS SCIENCE DIPLOMACY A NEW PHENOMENON?


Science diplomacy is not a new practice. Yet, the term itself only came into
general use relatively recently. While there is not one specific point at which
the term emerged in its current use, its prominence in publications and various
discourses began around 2005 (Flink and Rüffin, 2019). Yet, examples of science
diplomacy can be identified much earlier. Scholars Flink and Rüffin trace
science diplomacy, understood as ‘scientific cooperation across borders’, back
to the 17th century and the emergence of ‘modern’ science (Flink and Rüffin,
2019). They argue that communication and collaboration among scientists across
borders finds its origin there. For example, in 1723, the British Royal Society
created the position of ‘foreign secretary’ of the Royal Society. This person
was ‘to maintain regular correspondence with scientists overseas to ensure that
the Society’s Fellows remained up-to-date with the latest ideas and research
findings’ (Royal Society, 2010, p. 1). The emergence of modern nation states in
the 19th century and rising nationalism, however, challenged cooperation across
borders. Some scientific cooperation across borders, for example in the field of
astronomy, still flourished during that time. Nationalism also gave new impetus
to scientific progress as a means to foster a nation’s reputation 17and thus
emphasised competition. If we focus on science diplomacy as a set of activities
and policies pursued by state actors, then the practice of sending
representatives abroad to act as ‘science envoys’ or ‘science attachés’ can be
traced back to at least the late 19th century (Linkov et al., 2014). In 1898,
the USA stationed a science attaché, the zoologist Charles Wardell Stiles, at
its Berlin embassy. As part of US diplomacy, science attachés became more
prominent in the 1950s and 1960s.

a

WHAT ARE HYBRID MEETINGS?



Hybrid meetings let people join both in person and online, giving everyone a
fair chance to talk and take part in the meetings’ discussions.


a

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF 3 WRITINGS OF DIPLOMACY – DIPLOMACY –
DIPLOMACY?



3 writings of diplomacy illustrate different ways in which diplomacy is
perceived today:

diplomacy – written in lower-case letters – reflects our daily experience. At
home, at work, and on the street, we deal with conflicts through negotiations,
engagement, and ultimately, compromise. In addition, we represent our family,
our communities, and our companies. We often speak on behalf of others. This is
what diplomacy is about. Most people would not use the term ‘diplomacy’ to
describe these activities. Yet, these activities are at the core of diplomacy.

Diplomacy – with a capital ‘D’ – is a profession and a system of representation
for states. This is how diplomacy is seen in the news. It is about negotiations
and international treaties, among other elements. Traditionally, Diplomacy is
performed by diplomats and international officials working in embassies,
ministries of foreign affairs, and international organisations. A lot has been
written about Diplomacy; and you can read more about it on Diplo’s website.

DIPLOMACY – fully written in upper-case letters – is how diplomacy is often
perceived by the general public. This is the diplomacy of flags, receptions,
black limousines, and protocol. DIPLOMACY looks glamorous and aristocratic. This
perception can be traced back to the history of diplomacy, when it was a
profession reserved for aristocrats.

Dive deeper: 
https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/diplomacy-diplomacy-diplomacy/

Go back: 
https://www.diplomacy.edu/

a

WHAT IS CYBERSECURITY?


Cybersecurity is a protection of the Internet and other information systems from
malicious threats, misuse and malfunctioning. Cybersecurity covers wide area
including protection from cyberwar, terrorist attack and cybercrime, among
others. Cybersecurity is implemented through policies, procedures and technical
solutions.

a

WHAT IS DIGITAL DIPLOMACY?


Digital diplomacy refers to the impact of digital technology on diplomacy in
three realms:
 * changing digital geopolitical and geoconomic ENVIRONMENT for diplomatic
   activities (sovereignty, power redistribution, interdependence)
 * emerging digital TOPICS on diplomatic agenda (e.g. cybersecurity, e-commerce,
   privacy protection, and
 * new TOOLS for diplomatic activites (e.g. social media, big data, AI).


a

WHAT IS DIGITAL DIVIDE?


Digital divide refers to social inequalities created by the introduction of
computers and the Internet into human society. It is manifested in differences
in number of computers, access to the Internet and available applications.
Digital divide is most commonly used to describe the difference between
developed and developing countries in the use of digital technology and the
Internet. However, divides exists on various levels, including between young and
old, urban and rural, and among different professions. 

a

WHAT IS DIPLOMACY?



In its broadest sense, diplomacy is the conduct of international relations by
peaceful means.

More restrictive is this definition: diplomacy is the peaceful conduct of
international relations by official agents of states, international
organisations, and other international actors.

Even more restrictive is the definition of diplomacy as the conduct of relations
between sovereign states by members of their respective foreign services. There
are also a wide range of definitions based on functions of diplomacy:

Representation is one of the most important functions of diplomacy. Costas
Constantinou blends the concepts of representation and communication in his
definition:

> “At its basic level, diplomacy is a regulated process of communication between
> at least two subjects, conducted by their representative agents over a
> particular object.”

The next set of definitions is focused on communication and the sharing of
information. In The International Law of Diplomacy, B.S. Murthy defines
diplomacy as,

> “the process of transnational communication among the elites in the world
> arena.” Brian White defines diplomacy, both as “a communication process
> between international actors that seek through negotiation and dialogue to
> resolve conflicts” and as “one instrument that international actors use to
> implement their foreign policy”.

Tran Van Dinh’s most concise explanation of the importance communication has for
diplomacy is: 

> “Communication is to diplomacy as blood is to the human body. Whenever
> communication ceases, the body of international politics, the process of
> diplomacy, is dead, and the result is violent conflict or atrophy.”
> Constantiou describes diplomacy as “a regulated process of communication”
> (Constantinou) and James Alan as “the communication system of the
> international society”.

The third approach focuses on the definition of diplomacy as negotiation. Quincy
Wright defines diplomacy as:

> “the art of negotiation, in order to achieve the maximum of group objectives
> with a minimum of costs, within a system of politics in which war is a
> possibility.”

Hendely Bull defines diplomacy as

> “the management of international relations by negotiations.”

 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Learn more on diplomacy in general, digital diplomacy, science diplomacy, and
other types of diplomacy

Join wide range of courses on diplomacy

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------


a

WHAT IS E-POLITE LANGUAGE?



Unfortunately, online politeness is declining. Language is divisive and
offensive.

It’s possible to regain your e-politeness with careful language usage. Sarcasm
should be avoided as it can easily lead to offence.


a

WHAT IS INTERNET GOVERNANCE?


Internet governance is defined by the World Summit on Information Society (Tunis
Agenda, 2005) as “the development and application by Governments, the private
sector, and civil society, in their respective roles, of shared principles,
norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and programmes that shape the
evolution and use of the Internet.”

a

WHAT IS ONLINE DIPLOMACY?


Term online diplomacy is loosing its relevance and traction.

a

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF E-POLITENESS



E-politeness is about online behaviour that reflects respect and courtesy, just
as it should be in real life.


a

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIGITAL DIPLOMACY AND PUBLIC DIPLOMACY?


Public diplomacy only covers one aspect of digital diplomacy related to the use
of TOOLS for diplomacy including Twitter, Facebook and other social media. Other
aspects of digital diplomacy include new TOPICS on diplomatic agenda and
changing geopolitical or geo-economic ENVIRONMENT. However, digital diplomacy
may sometimes be seen as just public diplomacy because of high media visibility
of the use of Twitter and Facebook in international politics.

a

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?



Science and technology are both considered the foundations of modern society.
These terms are often used in modern parlance. The fundamental difference
between science and technology is that it can be viewed as “disinterested
knowledge and research” but not necessarily aimed at solving a practical
problems. Technology is commonly referred to in this way as “applied science”.

But, it’s difficult to discern such clear distinctions in practice. Technology
and science are often interconnected. It is not easy to tell the difference
between scientific discoveries in mathematics, and the development of
computers. Science and technology have been complementing one another. This
distinction has become more blurred in the last ten years.


a

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF AGENDA SETTING IN DIPLOMACY?



In the complex interplay of multiple issues and actors in diplomacy, the key
challenge is to place certain issues on global diplomatic agendas. Similarly to
the media in general and the world of the Internet, a fight for attention takes
place, in this case diplomatic attention. Kehone and Nye suggest that states
“struggle to get issues raised in international organisations that will maximise
their advantage by broadening or narrowing the agenda.”

Currently, there are many unresolved issues related to Internet governance. As a
result, extensive manoeuvring by different actors trying to place their own
issues on emerging Internet diplomatic agendas is taking place. 


a

WHAT WAS THE ROLE OF SCIENCE ATTACHÉS IN ADDRESSING COVID-19?


Science attachés played an important role in the response to COVID-19. In the
cases of France and the UK, the science attaché network was particularly
important as part of the initial crisis response. This included supporting
repatriation efforts and giving advice in the area of medical technologies to
colleagues from other fields, such as trade. Later, science attachés were
important in collecting information on initiatives and publications in their
geographic region. It is interesting to observe, though, that they mainly
supported national efforts while Unsurprisingly, science attachés played an
important role in the response to COVID-19. In the cases of France and the UK,
the science attaché network was particularly important as part of the initial
crisis response. This included supporting repatriation efforts and giving advice
in the area of medical technologies to colleagues from other fields, such as
trade. Later, science attachés were important in collecting information on
initiatives and publications in their geographic region. It is interesting to
observe, though, that they mainly supported national efforts while struggling to
maintain contact and collaborate with colleagues from other countries. Based on
this experience, a number of suggestions have been made on how to improve the
work of science attachés. You can read more in the article Science Attachés in a
Post-COVID-19 World: Taking Stock of the Crisis from Science & Diplomacy.

a

WHEN DID DIPLOMACY START?





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